Raising awareness about the benefits of and opportunities for improving workers’ basic skills is the first step to motivate more low-skilled workers and employers to engage in learning. This chapter explores three policy options for raising awareness about workers’ basic skills in England (United Kingdom): 1) setting and promoting the vision for raising the skills of low-skilled workers; 2) identifying and understanding the needs of low‑skilled workers more systematically; and 3) providing targeted guidance and information to low-skilled workers and their employers.
Raising the Basic Skills of Workers in England, United Kingdom
OECD Skills Studies
2. Raising awareness about workers’ basic skills in England, United Kingdom
Abstract
Key findings and recommendations: Raising awareness about workers’ basic skills
To be motivated to engage in learning, low-skilled workers (and their employers) must be aware of the nature and extent of their skills gaps, the costs and consequences of these gaps, and the potential benefits of (and opportunities for) addressing these gaps through learning.
However, relatively few low-skilled workers and employers in England are convinced of the need and value of investing in basic skills. Furthermore, they are often unaware of the programmes and public support available to them. England can build on some promising practices of its own, as well as various international practices, in order to raise awareness.
Policy makers and social partners in England today lack a shared understanding of the importance of and goals for raising the skills of low-skilled workers, partly reflecting the absence of a clear vision and strategy for skills. England could draw upon lessons from its own 2001 Skills for Life strategy, and recent strategies in countries like Norway and Ireland, to set and promote this vision.
England could more effectively identify which workers are low-skilled, and what their learning needs and goals are. The country has a rich array of skills data and assessment tools, but these are not utilised to their potential. Building on the analytical insights of the OECD Survey of Adult Skills, a product of the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), and existing tools from England, Canada and France, England could more systematically identify and understand the needs of low-skilled workers.
Most employers in England do not seek or receive advice on skills and training related issues, especially in some low-skilled sectors. A wide range of non-government and public guidance services are currently available in England, but provision is fragmented and not consistently tailored. The examples of Union Learning Representatives in England and centralised guidance services in countries like Denmark and Austria could inform England’s efforts to strengthen outreach and guidance to low-skilled workers.
The importance of raising awareness about workers’ basic skills in England
To be motivated to engage in learning, low-skilled workers (and their employers) must be aware of the nature and extent of their skills gaps, the costs and consequences of these gaps, and the potential benefits of (and opportunities for) addressing these gaps through learning.
Individuals can have both intrinsic motives to engage in learning (e.g. learning for its own sake or socialising) and extrinsic motives (e.g. economic benefits, obliged by law or employer, professional, personal). Evidence suggests that low-skilled learners in particular tend to be motivated to engage in learning more by extrinsic motivators (e.g. career progression or better pay) than by intrinsic motivators (e.g. personal aspirations for learning) (Windisch, 2015[1]). Internationally comparative data such as the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) and the European Union (EU) Adult Education Survey also show that the biggest motivation of participating in training is the improvement of job and career prospects (OECD, 2019[2]). Raising awareness about these extrinsic benefits is essential for motivating low-skilled workers to learn.
Employers may be motivated by the need to address skills shortages; retain talented workers; improve productivity, creativity, innovation and profitability; or meet legislative requirements. To be convinced of its value and be willing to invest in training despite its cost and the time off required, employers will want to know the impact of basic skills provision in terms of productivity, staff turnover, and staff understanding of health and safety information. Employers want to see concrete results after employees complete basic skills courses, such as improved communications, higher levels of understanding of safety and health guidance, and ultimately higher levels of productivity. They also want to know how long it will take to recoup investment in basic skills training (Reder, 2015[3]).
Employers also require reassurances about other concerns. For example, returns to basic skills training may not be clear to workers or employers, compared with either training for high-skilled workers or technical skills training. Although the returns to literacy and numeracy proficiency of low-educated workers in England are relatively high, their returns are still lower than those of the highly educated. The wage increase associated with a unit increase in skills among the highly educated is 6 percentage points higher than among the low educated, and this gap is higher than the average gap of the 22 countries in the survey (OECD, 2016[4]; OECD, 2013[5]). Additionally, employers may be concerned about the poaching of trained workers. Here, the evidence suggests that such concerns may be unwarranted – for individuals, workplace training is associated with longer job tenure and reduced probabilities of quitting the firm, and with lower labour turnover for the company as a whole (Ananiadou, Jenkins and Wolf, 2003[6]).
Individuals’ and employers’ perceptions of the potential benefits of engaging in basic skills learning depend on many factors. England’s own research found that adults go through four stages of decision-making with respect to learning – pre-contemplation, contemplation, determination, and maintenance – and face 12 main influences on whether and how they engage with and stay in learning, to varying degrees over these stages (Kantar Public and Learning and Work Institute, 2018[7]). These include their perceptions about their learning needs and future skills needs, as well as the availability, quality, relevance and cost of training. Policy makers have an important role in assuring the accessibility and relevance of basic skills learning (see Chapters 3 and 4). In addition, public authorities, social partners, learning providers and career guidance professionals must actively raise awareness of the importance and benefits of, and opportunities for improving the skills of low-skilled workers.
Various policies can be effective in raising the awareness and motivation of low-skilled workers to participate in education and training. These include raising awareness about the benefits of adult learning, engaging social partners to promote learning, and providing targeted guidance to adults about learning opportunities (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2015[8]). Convening key stakeholders to develop a vision and strategy for skills development can also be a powerful tool for raising the profile of the skills agenda, and building a shared understanding about a country’s key skills challenges and opportunities.
Current responsibilities and initiatives for raising awareness in England
As in other OECD countries, responsibility and initiatives for raising awareness about workers’ basic skills in England are not clearly defined and are shared across different departments, levels of government and social partners.
The Department for Education (DfE) is responsible for teaching, learning and training for adults in apprenticeships, traineeships and further education. It develops and promotes strategic and operation policy for developing adults’ skills. One of DfE’s priorities in the area of “Post-16 and skills” is to improve the quality of careers advice and guidance, including for adults, so that they are aware of the breadth of opportunities available to them. The DfE is supported by numerous agencies, public bodies and non-ministerial departments, and works closely with local authorities as well as professionals in further education and skills institutions (Department for Education, n.d.[9]).
The ESFA brings together the former responsibilities of the Education Funding Agency (EFA) and Skills Funding Agency (SFA) to create a single agency accountable for funding education and skills for children, young people and adults. The ESFA is accountable for funding for the education and training sector and operates key services in the education and skills sector, such as the National Careers Service, the National Apprenticeship Service and the Learning Records Service.
The National Careers Service offers free and impartial information, advice and guidance to help residents of England with decisions about careers, courses and work. Its online career tools include: over 800 job descriptions covering average pay, relevant courses and skills for the job and where the job can lead; two online skills assessments for users to learn more about their career skills, strengths and motivations; and a “Find a course” database for learning and training opportunities offered by providers contracted with the Education and Skills Funding Agency. This includes college courses, apprenticeships and GCSEs (General Certificate of Secondary Education), among others. Moreover, users can contact qualified career advisers to receive support and have their question answered via phone, webchat or face to face.
The National Apprenticeship Service provides support and funding for apprenticeships including a portal for learners to find apprenticeships, register and submit an application, but also for employers to find detailed information and guidance on offering apprenticeships (UK Government, n.d.[10]).
The Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy (BEIS) is responsible for business and industrial strategy. It develops and promotes strategic and operation policy for developing adults’ skills. As part of its objective to deliver an ambitious industrial strategy, the BEIS seeks to ensure that the UK workforce meets the skills needs of the economy by working with the Department for Education (DfE) to establish a world-class technical education system.
The Department for Work & Pensions (DWP) is responsible for welfare policy in England. Among their priorities, they provide mentoring and coaching to individuals to find employment and achieve financial independence. This translates into services to find, prepare for and apply to jobs, such as the Find a Job service which replaced Universal Jobmatch. Jobcentre Plus (JCP) helps those who need support and refers to active labour market policy measures and administers the benefit system.
Unionlearn is the learning and skills organisation of the Trades Union Congress (TUC), assisting unions in the delivery of learning opportunities for their members (Unionlearn, n.d.[11]). Unionlearn provides information on different aspects of job-related practices, like apprenticeships, and barriers to learning. Moreover, it provides information on how to support learners in strengthening their basic English, maths, information and communications technology (ICT), and functional skills.
England’s performance at raising awareness about workers’ basic skills
The available data suggest that relatively few low-skilled workers and employers in England are convinced of the need and value of investing in basic skills. Furthermore, they are often unaware of the programmes and public support available to them.
England has much potential to demonstrate the benefits of basic skills
The UK Employers Skills Survey is one of the largest employer surveys in the world, providing information on workforce profile, employer training provision, employer perception on skills and training. Other surveys – such as the Employer Perspective Survey, Education and Skills Surveys, Skills and Employment Survey – also provide valuable information on how employers perceive and react to skill needs. In addition, England has one of the most extensive databases on adult learners among OECD countries. For example, Individualised Learner Record (ILR) and Longitudinal Education Outcomes (LEO) data provide policy makers with useful insights into aspects of adult learning, including basic skills. ILR is the primary data collection requested from learning providers for further education and work-based learning. It allows the government to monitor policy implementation and the performance of the adult learning sector. It is also used by organisations that allocate funding for further education. Using administrative data, the LEO dataset provides information on the labour market outcomes of UK graduates over time, including employment and earning; these data were first published in 2016. There are also a number of government-commissioned studies, including those conducted by the Behavioural Insights Team that develop and test behavioural interventions to improve participation and completion of mathematics and English courses (Hume et al., 2018[12]; Booth, 2017[13]),1 and broader studies to understand adults’ experiences of and decisions about learning (Kantar Public and Learning and Work Institute, 2018[7]).
Yet many low-skilled workers seem unaware of the importance of basic skills
As noted earlier (Chapter 1), many low-skilled workers in England lack motivation to learn. About 51% of low-skilled workers in United Kingdom in the 2017 Skills and Employment Survey stated that they neither participated, nor wanted to participate in learning. Furthermore, few low-educated workers in the survey consider literacy and numeracy important to their jobs (Figure 2.1). Low-educated workers across the United Kingdom consider numeracy and literacy to be “essential” or “very important” in only about 15% to 20% of jobs. In contrast, workers consider self-planning to be the most important general skill, while the importance of computer use is growing steadily.
Relatively few low-educated workers search for information on learning possibilities. According to the 2016 Adult Education Survey, only about 21% of low-educated adults (with less than an upper secondary education) in the United Kingdom searched for information on formal and non-formal education and training in 2016 while twice as many (42%) highly-educated adults (with a tertiary qualification) searched for such information. Many submissions received during England’s Business, Innovation and Skills Committee inquiry into Adult Literacy and Numeracy also highlighted that too few adults know that there is free provision for English and maths training, up to and including GCSE level (House of Commons, 2014[14]).
Figure 2.1. Relatively few low-skilled workers consider literacy and numeracy vital to their jobs
Share of low-educated workers who report basic skills are “essential” or “very important” for their jobs, United Kingdom, 1997-2017
Note: Low-educated workers have no qualification or GCSE D-G/ NVQ level 1.
Source: Based on Henseke et al. (2018[15]), Skills Trends at Work in Britain – First Findings from the Skills and Employment Survey 2017, https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/1229834/2_Skills_at_Work_Minireport_Final_edit.pdf.
Employers lack awareness of the importance of raising workers’ basic skills
Many employers see no need for training. While not specific to basic skills training, about 40% of England’s employers with a low-educated workforce did not fund or arrange training for staff over the past 12 months, according to the 2017 Employer Skills Survey (Winterbotham et al., 2018[16]). By far the main reason employers gave for this was “All our staff are fully proficient / no need for training” (68% of employers). While this could reflect a good fit between workers’ skills and job requirements, it may also reflect that employers are simply unaware of workers’ basic skills gaps and/or see no economic benefits to investing in them.
Very few employers perceive that workers lack the basic skills needed in the job, in contrast to PIAAC evidence and, to some extent, employee’s own perceptions. As noted in Chapter 1, the importance of basic skills in England’s labour market is growing, while according to PIAAC, one in five working adults have low levels of skills. PIAAC analysis estimates that about 7% of workers in England lacked the numeracy skills required for their job, above the OECD average of 4% (OECD, 2016[4]). In contrast, only 3% to 5% (20 000‑30 000) of employing establishments in England with a low educated workforce (where less than 20% of staff have a Level 4 qualification or above) report that workers need to improve their basic skills (Figure 2.2). Furthermore, almost half of enterprises do not value a certified English and maths GCSE A*‑C when assessing potential new recruits (Shury et al., 2017[17]), and this rate is higher in lower-skilled sectors.
Figure 2.2. Very few employers in England perceive that workers lack basic skills needed for the job
% of all employers reporting that basic skills need improving, by type of skill, and workplace education level, England, 2017
Note: In low-educated workplaces (where less than 20% of staff have a Level 4 qualification or above), about 37% of workers who have a skills gap(s), have a skills gap(s) in “Reading and understanding”. Medium-educated (high-educated) workplaces are where 20-80% (more than 80%) of staff have such a qualification.
Source: Based on Winterbotham et al. (2018[16]), Employer Skills Survey 2017 Research Report, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/746493/ESS_2017_UK_Report_Controlled_v06.00.pdf.
Most employers are unaware of key public support available for upskilling low-skilled workers. According to England’s Employer Perspectives Survey (EPS) 2016, about 60% of employers in England are not aware of any of the following services – Union Learning Fund, National Skills Academy, Growth Accelerator or the Right of employees to request time to train. Even fewer employers in low-skilled sectors are aware of these services (Institute for Employment Studies, 2017[18]). It is unsurprising, therefore, that only 3% of employers in England had used any of these services.
Employers may be disengaged from developing the basic skills of their employees for multiple reasons (Booth, 2017[13]; Windisch, 2015[1]). Workers and employers may have limited understanding of the amount of basic skills required to perform at work, or to secure other employment (Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, 2016[19]).
Employers consider basic skills to be less important than technical skills (Winterbotham et al., 2018[16]; Winterbotham et al., 2020[20]). Basic skills may be seen as important but not in isolation of vocational skills (Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, 2016[19]). Employers may not feel responsible for workers’ basic skills, if they believe that basic skills should have been taught and learned in initial education. Employers have often used ‘work arounds’ to avoiding dealing with employees with low basic skills rather than identifying the issue and seeking a solution (Booth, 2017[13]).
At best, this puts employees in the situation of having to improve their basic skills without formal support from employers, and at worst it discourages them entirely. In the context of decreasing employer-provided training and employee time spent in training in England (GLA Economics, 2018[21]; Winterbotham et al., 2018[16]; Winterbotham et al., 2020[20]), basic skills could become even more neglected.
Against this backdrop, raising low-skilled workers’ and employers’ awareness about the nature and extent of their skills gaps, the costs and consequences of these gaps, and the potential benefits of (and opportunities for) addressing them, is essential for England.
Policy options for raising awareness about workers’ basic skills in England
According to available data and evidence on awareness about workers’ basic skills in England, as well as the insights provided by experts in England consulted during this project, a range of factors likely inhibit awareness about the importance of, and opportunities for raising the skills of low-skilled workers in England. England lacks a clear and shared vision for raising the skills of low-skilled workers, to help make the issue a priority for government, social partners and workers. Tools and services for identifying and understanding the needs and learning goals of low-skilled workers (and their employers) have some limitations. The availability of high-quality, targeted guidance and information to low-skilled workers (and their employers) is limited.
England has opportunities to raise awareness about workers’ basic skills by:
1. Setting and promoting the vision for raising the skills of low-skilled workers in England.
2. Identifying and understanding the needs of low-skilled workers.
3. Providing targeted guidance and information to low-skilled workers and their employers.
Policy option 2.1: Setting and promoting the vision for raising the skills of low-skilled workers in England
Governments can use skills strategies and broad information campaigns to help raise awareness of the importance of skills development and use, including for workers’ basic skills. Policy makers and social partners in England require a shared understanding of the importance and goals of raising the skills of low-skilled workers, which could be fostered by a clear vision and strategy for skills.
Convene stakeholders to establish England’s vision for improving workers’ basic skills, as part of a national skills strategy
Governments can use skills strategies to help raise awareness of the importance of skills development and use, including for workers’ basic skills. By involving key stakeholders in the strategy development and implementation, governments can articulate and raise awareness of skills challenges and opportunities; the goals, priority groups and targets for intervention; and roles and responsibilities for achieving those targets. Strategies of this sort can also help co-ordinate the efforts of different government departments, levels of government and social partners, leading to more coherent and effective skills development policies.
Stakeholders interviewed during the OECD review visits noted that there has been a lack of commitment from government to an explicit long-term strategy to address basic skills issues. This is in line with the findings from OECD (2019[22]) regarding the adult learning strategy in England. While the country has introduced various initiatives that directly or indirectly aim at enhancing basic skills as seen above, many recent policies and reforms have become more focused on developing occupational skills without giving much necessary recognition to the importance or contribution of basic skills to occupational skills and labour productivity.
England has raised the profile of the importance of workers’ basic skills through past strategies. Skills for Life 2001 was England’s national strategy for improving adult literacy and numeracy skills (Box 2.1). Skills for Sustainable Growth in 2010 was a market-driven and demand-led strategy. It emphasised employer ownership of skills through industrial partnerships with trade unions and others. While basic skills for the most disadvantaged groups (e.g. young people and the unemployed) are publicly funded through the Adult Skills Budget, emphasis was placed on the responsibility of employers and learners to ensure that their own skills needs are met by sharing the costs of training. At the forefront of the strategy has been expansion and improvements in the numbers of apprenticeships. The strategy increased the expectations for English and mathematics within apprenticeships, with a requirement that from 2014/15 all intermediate apprentices should work towards achieving a Level 2 in English and mathematics (Department for Business Innovation & Skills, 2010[23]).
The strategy also led to the establishment of employer-led networks. In relation to funding, emphasis has been on use of public money to leverage private money. For example, in 2011 Employer Ownership Pilots were launched through which public investment is provided directly to businesses alongside businesses’ own private investment; this ran counter to the mainstream public funding model where funding is channelled through further education (FE) colleges and training providers. To strengthen the teaching workforce, bursaries of GBP 20 000 were provided to mathematics graduates to encourage them to teach in further education colleges, and GBP 9 000 was offered to graduates teaching English (Department for Business Innovation & Skills, 2010[23]).
Several major reviews have promoted the importance of getting adults’ skills right in England. The Leitch Review of Skills (Leitch, 2006[24]) recognised the importance of enhancing low basic skills and the risks of not doing so, and set targets for basic skills by 2020 (see Table 1.2).
The 2020 objectives mentioned in the review serve as a salutary reminder. Between 2005 and 2012 or 2017, there has been unsatisfactory progress in terms of adult basic skills compared with high-level skills. The Taylor Review of Modern Working Practices (Taylor et al., 2017[25]) – has important implications for developing adult basic skills in the workplace. It pointed out the declining level of training and investment for workers2 and those outside work. It highlighted the changes of work towards more precarious jobs (e.g. platform-based work, dependent contractors) and the importance of providing additional protections for this group and stronger incentives for firms to treat them fairly. Finally, the Augar review of Post-18 Education and Funding examined the effectiveness and efficiency of public financial support available to the further education and skills and higher education sector. It concluded that, unlike higher education, the further education and skills sector is underfunded. Teachers in FE colleges are paid on average less than their counterparts in schools, funding levels are inadequate to cover essential maintenance or to provide modern facilities, and funding flows are complex to navigate (Augar et al., 2019[26]).
England has introduced various initiatives that directly or indirectly aim at enhancing basic skills. These include the basic skills entitlements, reform of Functional Skills Qualifications in English and maths, reform of basic digital skills qualifications, and extension of compulsory participation in learning. Furthermore, Apprenticeship Levy reforms are helping to put adult skills more generally in the limelight. However, the OECD heard during consultations for this project that recent major reforms have become more focused on developing occupational skills, giving little recognition to the importance and contribution of basic skills to occupational skills. As such, England does not have a clear and comprehensive strategy to help raise awareness about workers’ basic skills. In fact, the United Kingdom is among a minority of OECD countries in which adult learning is part of a wider strategy (Table 2.1), and raising the basic skills of low-skilled workers is not an explicit priority.
The government could better develop strategic policies for skills in close partnership with sub-national levels of government and social partners, which can help raise awareness in regions and economic sectors. Along with policies such as devolution of the Adult Education Budget and T Levels, it will be necessary to set a clear and shared vision for basic skills policies. As in many other countries, this could be done as part of a broader national skills strategy.
Table 2.1. Examples of adult learning strategies, OECD and emerging countries
Note: * Funding is based on the strategy, but funded by the budget; ** Strategy states that a committee should be set up to monitor the progress and the indicators; *** Specific quantitative targets are laid out by department of Education and skills; **** Very specific indicators for the monitoring, although no reference value provided in the strategy.
Source: OECD (2019[27]), Getting Skills Right: Future-Ready Adult Learning Systems, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264311756-en.
England could build on the experience of recent strategies to set and promote the vision for raising the skills of low-skilled workers in England. Skills for Life 2001 was England’s national strategy for improving adult literacy and numeracy skills. The Greater London Authority’s adult education strategy stressed basic skills (including ESOL) as a priority within a broader upskilling agenda (GLA Economics, 2018[21]; Greater London Authority, 2018[28]) (Box 2.1).
Box 2.1. Relevant domestic examples: Skills strategies in England
2001 Skills for Life strategy
Skills for Life was a national strategy launched in 2001 and aimed at improving adult literacy and numeracy skills. It channelled more than GBP 5 billion towards ring-fenced funding for free literacy, numeracy and English for speakers of other languages (ESOL) provision.
The strategy was built with a co‑ordinated effort by different governmental agencies and stakeholders from civil society. It encouraged the development of core curricula, learning materials and national qualifications based on new standards as well as new qualifications for initial teacher training and professional development for teachers. It set challenging national targets for the achievement of qualifications, involved top-down management of the skills system and setup important public subsidies.
According to various surveys, the strategy helped to engage the public in basic skills. The objective of improving the literacy, language and numeracy skills of 2.25 million adults by 2010 was surpassed, with 2.8 million individuals achieving national recognised qualifications by 2008. Furthermore, between the first and last Skills for Life surveys (2003 and 2011 respectively), the proportion of respondents achieving a Level 2 or above score in literacy increased from 44% to 57%.
Greater London Authority’s Adult Education Strategy
Skills for Londoners is a post-16 skills and adult education strategy for London. The strategy was shaped following public consultation between November 2017 and January 2018. This included ten consultation events and written submissions from London's public, private and voluntary stakeholders.
Objective 3 “Increase the number and diversity of adult learners in London gaining the skills they need to participate in society and progress into further / higher-level learning, work or an apprenticeship” includes a strong focus on basic skills. One of the actions under this objective is “Drive up participation and progression outcomes in the provision of English and maths, identify new and more diverse sources of investment and innovative approaches in ESOL, work towards providing a digital skills entitlement for Londoners, and seek to make adult learning provision more accessible and flexible, through the devolved AEB.” While it is too early to evaluate the impacts of strategy, the approach is to achieve the objectives in collaboration with stakeholders from civil society and by promoting access to and raising awareness of adult learning opportunities.
Source: GLA Economics, (2018[21]), Skills Strategy for Londoners: Evidence Base, https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/skills-strategy-evidence-base.pdf; Greater London Authority (2018[28]), Skills for Londoners: A Skills and Adult Education Strategy For London, https://feweek.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/2018-SKILLS-FOR-LONDON-STRATEGY.pdf; English Department of Education and Skills (2004[29]), Skills for Life – The National Strategy for Improving Adult Literacy and Numeracy Skills Delivering the Vision 2001-2004, https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/7187/7/ACF35CE_Redacted.pdf; Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (2012[30]), The 2011 Skills for Life Survey: A Survey of Literacy, Numeracy and ICT Levels in England, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/36000/12-p168-2011-skills-for-life-survey.pdf.
Norway and Ireland have developed skills strategies that have helped raise awareness of the importance of skills development and use, including for workers’ basic skills (Box 2.2). They highlight for England the importance of skills strategies that involve stakeholders from the outset, clear roles and responsibilities for implementation, and continuous refinement based on ongoing monitoring.
Box 2.2. Relevant international examples: Establishing a shared vision for skills development
Norway - the Norwegian Strategy for Skills Policy 2017-21
In 2017, Norway adopted the Norwegian Strategy for Skills Policy 2017-21, following up on the recommendations of the 2012-14 OECD Skills Strategy Project. Norway faced the challenge of an uncoordinated approach to skills between national, county and municipal levels which struggled to deliver flexible and adaptable policies. Thus, Norway was advised to develop a skills strategy that incorporated a whole-of-government approach and strong stakeholder involvement. One of the main objectives of the Strategy was implementing adult education measures with a specific focus on individuals with poor basic skills or limited formal qualifications.
The strategy is based on a binding agreement among the main strategy partners, namely the government, employer associations, trade unions, the voluntary sector and the Sami Parliament. More specifically, the government, in co-operation with social partners, is responsible for the development and implementation of the skills policy and for ensuring co-ordination across policy sectors and levels of government. Municipalities, including local and regional authorities, are the school owners and provide numerous services to the end user. Employers provide training in the workplace, often in collaboration with other partners. The Sami Parliament ensures that the authorities enable the Sami people to have the necessary linguistic and cultural expertise to develop Sami society and businesses. The voluntary sector contributes to skills development both within and outside the labour market.
The Norwegian strategy is overseen by the Skills Policy Council and includes the Future Skills Needs Committee. All stakeholders involved perceived the Council as an improvement in Norway’s previous strategy as it allows to maintain skills policy at the top of the shared agenda, and it facilitates reforms. Furthermore, also the Committee has been acknowledged as facilitating the convergence of social partners. However, Norway is still in the process of refining the Strategy, and developing an even clearer mandate and adequate mode of operation for the aforementioned bodies.
Ireland – the Further Education and Training Strategy 2014-19
Ireland’s Further Education and Training (FET) Strategy 2014-2019 sets the direction of adult education and training for individuals, employees and employers. The strategy establishes a comprehensive set of education and training programmes according to the needs of different adult populations.
The five main goals of the strategy are developing relevant skills for learners, jobseekers, employers and employees; supporting the active inclusion of individuals through a particular attention to literacy and numeracy; ensuring a high quality of provision; structuring the planning and funding of the initiative on the basis of sound empirical evidence; and finally ensuring a valued learning path leading to personal and professional development. The goal for literacy and numeracy includes, among other priorities, the development of an awareness campaign to increase engagement. These goals, are to be achieved through a co‑ordinated mechanism that engages with industry, at the national, regional and local levels, so to ensure the relevance of FET provision.
The Irish Further Education and Skills Service co-ordinates implementation of the strategy, and involves close collaboration between various departments, employers, education providers and other stakeholders (Irish Department of Education and Skills, 2014[31]; OECD/ELS, 2018[32]). A review in 2018 highlighted the partial success of the strategy in achieving some of the goals, while also recognising the need to re-evaluate the timeline and fund further research on social and economic outcomes at an individual level.
In light of these practices, adopting a skills strategy in England would benefit from engagement with stakeholders from the outset, clear roles and responsibilities for these actors in the implementation phase, and a well-defined approach for monitoring the effectiveness of the strategy.
Source: SOLAS (2014[33]), Further Education and Training Strategy; https://www.education.ie/en/Publications/Policy-Reports/Further-Education-and-Training-Strategy-2014-2019.pdf, SOLAS (2018[34]), Progress Review of the Further Education and Training Strategy 2014-2019, https://www.solas.ie/f/70398/x/fd331c2bf7/fet-review_final_10_5-7.pdf; NALA (2014[35]), First ever five year strategy for Further Education and Training just launched, https://www.nala.ie/first-ever-five-year-strategy-for-further-education-and-training-just-launched; Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research (2017[36]), Norwegian Strategy For Skills Policy 2017-2021. https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/3c84148f2f394539a3eefdfa27f7524d/strategi-kompetanse-eng.pdf.
Recommendation for establishing England’s vision for improving workers’ basic skills:
The government and stakeholders should collaborate to establish England’s vision and strategy for improving workers’ basic skills. This could be part of a broader national skills strategy (e.g. as a standalone priority), or comprise a targeted strategy for basic skills. Drawing upon lessons from its own 2001 Skills for Life strategy, and recent strategies in countries like Norway and Ireland, the government should convene key stakeholders to develop a shared vision and comprehensive strategy that: sets priorities and targets for basic skills development and other forms and types of adult education and training; establishes the importance of using adults’ skills in workplaces; clarifies the main roles and responsibilities of each sector in adult learning; and establishes performance indicators and, where public funding is involved, accountability for implementation.
Actively promote England’s vision for improving workers’ basic skills, as part of a broader multimedia campaign
Having established a shared vision and strategy for raising the skills of low-skilled workers, it will be essential to communicate and promote this vision across the country. Awareness campaigns may promote the benefits of raising basic skills, advertise specific programmes for adult learning or reach out to under-represented groups (OECD, 2019[37]). The effectiveness of awareness-raising campaigns or outreach activities on the participation of adult education is in general rarely evaluated (Ceneric, Looney and de Greef, 2014[38]), and in particular in relation to those with low basic skills. Research based on in depth case studies suggests that raising awareness of the benefits of adult learning can increase participation, and increase earnings for workers (European Commission, 2015[39]). Public awareness raising campaigns come in many forms in other OECD countries (Table 2.2).
Table 2.2. Public awareness raising campaigns and their focus in selected OECD countries
Source: OECD (2019[27]), Getting Skills Right: Future-Ready Adult Learning Systems, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264311756-en.
The communications strategies accompanying existing strategic policies for skills appear to be limited in their aspirations and reach. However, England has had relatively successful awareness-raising campaigns in the past (Melrose, 2014[40]). For example, the 2001 Skills for Life strategy in England (Box 2.3) set up a high-profile media campaign, funded in part by the European Social Fund. However, since Skills for Life such nation-wide campaigns have been absent in terms of addressing the importance of basic skills and encouraging participation in adult learning.
England’s Business, Innovation and Skills Committee report on Adult Literacy and Numeracy (2014-15) concluded that:
“The Government has pledged funding for free training and tuition for any adult who wants to study English and maths up to and including GCSE level, but it needs to get the message across to adults with limited English and maths skills that this help is available. To make sure that this message reaches the right people, we recommend that the Government carry out a high-profile national campaign to promote robustly this initiative. This must be treated as a priority. The Government must publish a timetable of how and when the national campaign will be launched. Coupled with this national campaign, the Government should develop clear signposting routes, helping adults to find the most appropriate and nearest help (either voluntary schemes or more formal classes). The Government should report back in its response on the methods it will use to develop this initiative.”
England could draw on the experience of its 2001 Get on Campaign and the more recent Apprenticeship Campaign 'Fire It Up', as it seeks to raise workers’ and employers’ awareness of the importance of basic skills (Box 2.3).
Other OECD countries have implemented awareness raising initiatives, often connected to skills-related strategies. Portugal launched its adult learning programme Qualifica in 2016/17 with a largescale public awareness campaign titled “More Qualification, Better Jobs” (Box 2.4). The Institute for Adult Education in Slovenia, for example, has been organising an annual lifelong learning week since 1996, connected with its Adult Education Master Plan (ReNPIO). Today the initiative includes more than 1 500 events implemented in co‑operation with partner organisations throughout the country. To reach the widest possible audience, campaigns can be delivered through different media channels, such as TV, radio, print, online and social media, as well as include outreach work through events, existing networks or direct mail. In Argentina, for example, the Hacemos Futuro programme reaches out to community leaders via Whatsapp, who in turn inform their target group about upcoming training offers (OECD, 2019[37]).
Box 2.3. Relevant domestic examples: Media campaign for England’s skills agenda
2001 Get On campaign
Under the 2001 Skills for Life strategy, the Get On campaign and use of the Gremlin brand aimed to raise awareness and reduce the stigma attached to needing to improve English and maths skills. Ultimately it aimed to motivate adults to take action to improve their skills.
The campaign evolved over the years. In fact, the first wave of ads was focused on the portrayal of the common problems experienced by individuals with poor literacy and numeracy. Then, it moved towards the presentation of the potential benefits provided by improving someone’s own skills level through courses and/or training. Finally, it depicted the learners while achieving their desired level of qualification and “getting rid” of their Gremlins. The advertisements invited the viewers to call a free national learning advice line, which was in charge of providing them with local learning opportunities as well as support to overcome their barriers towards learning. Those who called were also offered a free video or DVD that contained the testimonies of real individuals who decided to improve their skills level.
Some evidence suggests the campaign raised awareness of the issues surrounding adult literacy, language and numeracy skills in England (English Department of Education and Skills, 2004[29]). There was a national recognition rate of 93% amongst its target audience, with over 370 000 people contacting the national helpline following the campaign. Follow-up research indicates that 26% of people who called the helpline took up learning opportunities as a result (Paterson, Stringer and Vernon, 2010[41]; National Audit Office, 2004[42]). The success of the campaign could be seen not only through public reaction, but also in terms of the collaboration and coordination across different stakeholders working together as part of Skills for Life (English Department of Education and Skills, 2004[29]).
Fire It Up – Apprenticeships
The Fire It Up campaign was launched at the beginning of 2019 to raise awareness of the importance of apprenticeships and their potential benefits. The campaign is not primarily addressed to individuals with low levels of numeracy and literacy, but more generally to all the individuals who might benefit from the experience provided by a traineeship. Although the focus is primarily on young individuals, adult workers who want to gain new skills and experiences are also included in the scope of the programme. The media contents created by the campaign refer the users to the website of the Apprenticeship programme, which also displays real stories of other citizens who benefitted from this experience, with the aim of raising awareness regarding apprenticeship and improving the perception of the public towards them. Although it is too early to evaluate the impacts of the campaign, it may provide lessons for England’s efforts to raise awareness of workers’ basic skills.
Source: English Department of Education and Skills (2004[29]); Skills for Life – The National Strategy for Improving Adult Literacy and Numeracy Skills Delivering the Vision 2001-2004, https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/7187/7/ACF35CE_Redacted.pdf. Paterson, Stringer and Vernon (2010[41]), Count Me In -- Improving Numeracy in England: A Guide for Charities and Funders, https://www.thinknpc.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Count-me-in.pdf; National Audit Office (2004[42]), Skills for Life: Improving Adult Literacy and Numeracy, https://www.nao.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2004/12/040520.pdf.
Portugal and Ireland have implemented awareness raising campaigns, the former for a new adult education system and the latter focused on Adult Literacy and Numeracy (Box 2.4). They highlight for England the potential impact of such campaigns, and the importance of promoting the relevance of basic skills training in targeted ways to different groups of adults using a variety of channels.
Box 2.4. Relevant international examples: Awareness campaigns for adult learning
Portugal – Awareness raising for the New Opportunities Initiative and Qualifica Programme
The Portuguese government has made significant efforts for more than a decade to raise the interest of Portuguese citizens in participating in learning, including through public websites (ANQEP, IEFP) and broad-based awareness-raising campaigns during the New Opportunities Initiative (active between 2005 and 2013). These appear to have played a role in raising participation (Carneiro, 2011[43]). The OECD’s Skills Strategy Implementation Guidance report for Portugal found that large-scale campaigns appear to be important for targeting low-skilled adults, especially given the large size of the target population.
More recently, the introduction of the new Qualifica Programme, which aims to upgrade the education and skills of adults, has been supported by several information tools, like the Minuto Qualifica large-scale television campaign launched in July 2017. The Qualifica Programme also has a web portal (Portal Qualifica), which provides access to a range of information on adult learning through multiple channels, including social media.
The OECD concluded, however, that any new or expanded communication campaign should build on past experience and avoid pitfalls such as overly general information and messages. In particular, stakeholders suggested that to be effective, any new campaign would need to i) raise awareness about the quality and rigour of the learning opportunities and processes used in adult learning, and ii) deliver well-targeted messages in innovative ways to reach populations with low motivation and participation. A complementary approach suggested during the project was to showcase best practices and stories from individuals, and create national awards to recognise investments in training (for instance by employers).
Ireland - National Adult Literacy and Numeracy Awareness Campaign
In September 2017, SOLAS, the Further Education and Training Authority in Ireland, funded a second phase of the national adult literacy and numeracy awareness campaign - a key action in Ireland’s Further Education and Training (FET) Strategy 2014-19, aimed at eliciting more participation in national programmes. The campaign was managed by the National Adult Literacy Agency (NALA) and supported by a range of stakeholders via a national steering committee. It was first launched in 2016 with the slogan “Take the first step” and focused on four individuals sharing their own stories. Two additional phases in 2017 and 2018 included radio, video, digital and outdoor advertising, as well as public relation activities.
Following the third phase of the campaign, there was about a 110% increase in sessions and 87% new users to the main campaign website takethefirststep.ie. NALA provided information to 600 individuals who phoned and wanted information about improving their literacy and numeracy skills. An evaluation of the campaign showed that 38% of the total population recall the campaign and are gaining awareness of services, with a 74% recall rate among individuals with difficulties in literacy and numeracy. However, the challenge lies in reaching the 62% of the population who do not recall the campaign.
The Portuguese and Irish examples highlight the potential value of awareness campaigns for England, and the importance of promoting the relevance of basic skills training in targeted ways to different groups of adults, using a range of media.
Source: NALA (2018[44]), 2018 National Adult Literacy Awareness Campaign Evaluation - Phase 3 (NALA), https://www.nala.ie/publications/2018-national-adult-literacy-awareness-campaign-evaluation-phase-3-nala;
OECD (2018[45]), Skills Strategy Implementation Guidance for Portugal: Strengthening the Adult-Learning System, https://www.oecd.org/publications/skills-strategy-implementation-guidance-for-portugal-9789264298705-en.htm;
SOLAS (2017[46]), National Adult Literacy and Numeracy Awareness Campaign, Phase Two: September 2017, Summary and Evaluation Report, https://www.solas.ie/f/70398/x/e4795ce7a4/national-literacy-and-numeracy-awareness-campaign-phase-two-september.pdf.
Recommendation for promoting England’s vision for raising workers’ basic skills:
The government and stakeholders should actively promote England’s vision and strategy for improving workers’ basic skills. This could be part of a broader awareness raising campaign about skills, or more focused on workers’ basic skills specifically. It should draw on the lessons of England’s 2001 Get On campaign and 'Fire It Up' Apprenticeship Campaign, as well as international experience from countries like Portugal and Ireland. The government, subnational authorities and social partners should be involved in designing, implementing and evaluating a multimedia campaign to raise awareness, which promotes the concepts, importance and benefits of lifelong and life-wide learning (including for basic skills); available learning programmes and recognition of prior learning opportunities; and career guidance services and funding support (including the Adult Education Budget). It could include a national award scheme that publicises stories of low-skilled workers and their employers successfully engaging in skills development.
Policy option 2.2: Identifying and understanding the needs of low-skilled workers, with improved analytics and assessment tools
Effectively identifying and understanding the learning needs of low-skilled workers complements broader awareness-raising efforts (policy option 2.1), and enables policy makers and service providers to better target outreach, guidance and information to low-skilled workers (policy option 2.3).
England could more effectively and efficiently identify which workers are low-skilled, and what their learning needs and goals are, in order to raise their awareness of and motivation for learning. Given that many low-skilled workers are unlikely to identify themselves – they may not be aware of their lack of basic skills or may not wish this to be visible – more systematic mechanisms are likely to be necessary. England currently does not have a systematic and comprehensive mechanism for identifying low-skilled workers, or their learning needs and goals.
Improve data analytics to identify and target workers who are most likely to lack basic skills
Identifying and reaching adults with poor basic skills is challenging, in part because they often do not self-identify as having poor basic skills due to social or economic pressures. Effectively helping low-skilled workers to upskill is also complex, because adult learners are very diverse (Windisch, 2015[1]). Some are highly dependent on teachers for structure and guidance, while others prefer to manage their own learning (Knowles, 1980[47]). Some may be motivated to learn because of some specific objective like helping their children with homework, others may want to learn out of curiosity (Merriam, 2011[48]). These adults may also have diverse backgrounds that create particular challenges, including adults whose initial experiences with education were largely negative, migrants with weak language skills, individuals with learning difficulties, individuals who have found themselves in and out of work, and those with challenging family responsibilities. At the same time, prospective learners come with diverse sets of positive motivations which can be multi-dimensional and subject to change depending on life circumstances.
Data-driven approaches like probability modelling, segmentation techniques and assessment tools can be useful for identifying and understanding the needs and motivations of low-skilled workers, in order to target outreach and awareness raising and skills assessment tools effectively.
England has among the richest data and evidence bases on adult skills and learning among OECD countries. In addition to participating in the 2012 OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) (Kuczera, Field and Windisch, 2016[49]), the national Skills for Life 2011 Survey also measured adults’ skills (Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, 2012[30]). England has detailed and longitudinal data on adult skills and learning in the Individual Learning Records (ILR) and Longitudinal Education Outcomes (LEO). These databases play an important role in understanding the reasons for participation or non-participation and the ingredients of achievements (and possibly the impact of the achievements). England also has an impressive array of surveys on workers’ and employers’ skills challenges and training patterns, including the Employer Skills Survey, Employer Perspectives Survey, the Skills and Employment Survey, the Adult Participation in Learning Survey, and various other surveys implemented by social partners and researchers. However, apart from these two skills assessments in 2011/12, England has no ongoing, updated data on which or how many workers have low levels of literacy and/or numeracy.
England could make more use of probability modelling to identify which workers and employers are most likely to lack basic skills. As noted in Chapter 1, low-skilled adults are concentrated in certain economic sectors and occupations. According to the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), (see Annex A), over 50% of England’s low-skilled workers are employed in four economic sectors (Wholesale and retail trade; Human health and social work; Manufacturing; and Transportation and storage). In terms of occupations, over 50% of England’s low-skilled workers are employed in two occupation groups (Service workers and shop and market sales workers; and Elementary occupations). Furthermore, OECD quantitative analysis of PIAAC data showed that certain, more observable characteristics are predictive of adults having low-levels of skills (Box 2.6).
Policy makers and providers in England could potentially use market segmentation techniques to target outreach and services based on the motivations, barriers and preferences of different groups of workers’ and employers. Market segmentation is a well-established approach to dividing potential markets into distinct and separate clusters of ‘consumers’ with shared characteristics, needs and values (Shiffman, Kanuk and Hansen, 2008[50]). In the higher education sector, there is evidence of widespread use of market segmentation by providers. Market segmentation is typically based on four key variables: geographic, demographic, behavioural and psychographic (Hemsley-Brown, 2017[51]). England is already applying segmentation analysis to understand different types of firms. Research by the UK Commission for Employment and Skills (Brown, 2014[52]) segmented small businesses, the results of which have been used to understand how to best target behavioural ‘nudges’ to increase workers’ basic skills development (Box 2.5) and target behavioural interventions accordingly (Box 2.5). While not specific to low-skilled workers or basic skills, a recent study for England has already created an “attitudinal typology” of adult learners based on the most prominent reasons for learning and the influence of key factors on them at any given point (Kantar Public and Learning and Work Institute, 2018[7]). It highlighted potentially effective interventions for each group at each stage of their learning decision-making or learning “journey”. Tailored advice, messages, open days, and advertising about career opportunities and associated learning options were identified as critical for adults lacking a strong and clear purpose for learning (see policy option 2.3).
Box 2.5. Relevant domestic examples: Segmenting workplaces to target basic skills interventions
The UK Commission for Employment and Skills sought to understand the different paths employers take to high-performance working practices (HPWP) adoption, and the different points at which they tend to end up.
Segmenting small-to-medium sized workplaces (between 5 and 99 employees) according to their reported adoption of HPWP highlighted a range of paths, with different choices between talent development and employee autonomy. The study identified seven segments of employers which seem to differ in coherent ways in their approach to HPWP adoption. The study analysed the relationship between establishment strategy, size, sector and workforce context and HPWP adoption. Substantial differences emerged, and the analysis became a foundation to further understand the motivations and outcomes of HPWP adoption.
A follow up study “Basic skills in workplaces – a behavioural insights perspective”, used the segmentation of employers’ working practices and identified broadly three groupings of employers whose characteristics determine whether behavioural insights could be used to shift training behaviour. The study found:
High performers who are already engaged in and value training – there may be some room to encourage changes in training approach.
Employers who do not currently train but may be open to changing this – behavioural approaches could encourage investment.
Disengaged employers who are not training and are unlikely to shift behaviour – it is unlikely that behavioural approaches will influence this group.
Source: Brown (2014[52]), High Performance Working: A New Segmentation of Smaller Workplaces, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/406806/HPW_FOR_WEB.pdf; Booth (2017[13]), Annex B: Basic Skills in Workplaces – A Behavioural Insights Perspective, Research Report, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/690344/ANNEX_B_-_Basic_Skills_in_Workplaces_update_13March.pdf.
The OECD’s analysis of PIAAC data highlights the potential for quantitative techniques to help identify those groups of adults (and enterprises) who are most likely to have low levels of basic skills (Box 2.6). England could make greater use of these, and other analytical techniques.
Box 2.6. Relevant international examples: OECD analysis of socio-demographic differences in basic skills
The Programme for the International Assessment of Adults Competences (PIAAC) provides an evaluation of adult competences in over 40 countries. The aim of this programme is to provide countries with important data on the skills’ proficiencies in numeracy, literacy and problem solving of their own citizens.
The OECD has conducted a range of analysis of the PIAAC data using different analytical techniques, to better understand what observable characteristics (age, gender, education, immigrant and language background and parents’ educational attainment) are associated with, and appear to affect, adults’ basic skills levels. Using marginal effects modelling, and controlling for various observable influences, the OECD analysis of PIAAC data showed that, on average in England:
Adults who have not attained upper secondary education are 35 percentage points more likely to be low-skilled than adults who have completed tertiary education.
Foreign-born adults whose native language is not English are 26 percentage points more likely to be low skilled than adults born in England.
There is potential to further this analysis, for example by focusing on working adults, or analysing the association between job characteristics and skills levels. The results could help England identify those groups of adults and enterprises who are most likely to be characterised by low levels of basic skills, in order to target outreach, guidance and other services effectively (see Annex B).
Source: OECD (2019[53]), Skills Matter, https://doi.org/10.1787/1f029d8f-en.
Recommendation for improving data analytics to identify and target the low-skilled:
Policy makers should improve data analytics to better identify and target workers and employers who are most likely to lack basic skills. In order to target skills assessment tools and awareness raising efforts, policy makers should make better use of national and international data through diverse analytical approaches. This could involve use of probability modelling to identify which workers and employers are most likely to lack basic skills as in the case of OECD PIAAC analysis, and segmentation techniques to target outreach and services based on the motivations, barriers and preferences of different groups of workers’ and employers, building on England’s experience with firm segmentation and adult learner typologies.
Assess the skills development needs, motivations and barriers of workers likely to have low basic skills
Understanding workers’ basic skills gaps, motivations and barriers to learning, and most appropriate learning opportunity – workplace based, community learning (non-formal), functional skills, GCSE or apprenticeship (formal) – is critical to motivating them to develop their basic skills.
While England’s rich data and information base support its capacity to identify groups of workers and employers most likely to lack basic skills, it needs better tools to assess the skills of individual workers. A best practice guidebook developed under the 2001 Skills for Life Strategy advised service providers to undertake a detailed diagnostic assessment for potential learners, comprising a short series of tasks to establish literacy, language or numeracy needs. Given that many of those with low basic skills, are unaware of the problems that they face in numeracy, literacy and digital skills or are hesitant to self-identify, a new mechanism to facilitate assessment of basic skills levels in workplaces may be warranted.
The National Career’s Services’ online skills assessment tool does not assess basic skills levels or refer users to learning. The “Discover your skills and careers” tool is a 5 to 10 minute assessment to find out what job categories, and which particular job roles, might suit the user. The “Skills health check” has individual assessment to allow users to explore how they make judgements using numbers or written information. However, it is designed to help users understand how they work with information and solve problems, in order to help them write a CV, look for work, apply for jobs or go to an interview. It is not designed to rigorously assess users’ basic skills levels, and does not connect them to basic skills programmes, services or support in light of their results (National Careers Service, n.d.[54]).
Some non-government actors have tools for assessing workers’ basic skills (Box 2.7). Unionlearn provides a skill assessment tool called SkillCheck covering English, Maths, ICT, Apprenticeships and Everyday Finances (Unionlearn, 2017[55]). National Numeracy provides accessible and scalable numeracy assessment tools to identify and address poor numeracy (National Numeracy, 2017[56]). Building confidence can also be one way to facilitate adult learning participation among adults with low basic skills. National Numeracy uses the National Numeracy Challenge to help people identify their confidence levels in numeracy. This can help engage adults in activities that aim to enhance their numeracy skills and it is a tool that can be embedded into existing programmes such as recruitment, induction and workplace development. With a similar approach, digital capabilities3 are identified in addition to digital skills (Ipsos MORI, 2018[57]).
At the international level, the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competences (PIAAC) is currently the most ambitious assessment of the skills used by adults in their work, home and communities. OECD Education & Skills Online is an assessment tool designed to provide individual-level results that are linked to the PIAAC measures of literacy, numeracy, problem solving in technology-rich environments, and reading components (basic reading skills) measures that can be used to compare the test taker’s results with the those of others both within the test taker’s country and internationally (OECD, n.d.[58]). The assessment includes a background questionnaire to collect information on the test taker’s age, gender, education level, employment status and native country and language. The tool also includes non-cognitive assessments that measure skill utilisation, workforce readiness, career interests, and health indicators. It can be used as a diagnostic tool of skills and learning needs both for individuals in and out of work.
As important as developing a systematic tool for assessing worker’s basic skills, needs and goals is finding the appropriate actor(s) to implement the tool. Assessment and screening often goes hand in hand with direct outreach to adults with low basic skills by career counsellors and guides, and other actors. This is discussed in the next section (policy option 2.3).
Employers could play a role in identifying low-skilled adults, and England might consider introducing assessments of employees’ basic skills and upskilling needs by firms as part of regular career reviews. For example, France has made it mandatory for employers to have career development interviews with their employees every two years so that they can regularly check to see if their skill levels are adequate and if not, facilitating their access to appropriate training opportunities (entretien professionnel). These regular career reviews by employers can serve as a first step identification of basic skill needs, as well as retraining and upskilling needs for career progression more comprehensively. Individuals identified through these reviews as potentially having basic skills deficiencies could be advised to participate in an in-depth basic skills assessment, such as the one underlying the CléA certificate (Box 2.8). Such mechanisms could target low-skilled sectors and occupations as an industrial strategy, to anticipate skill needs and industrial and sectoral changes while providing upskilling and reskilling opportunities. However, sensitive screening and initial assessment are crucial so as not to demoralise potential learners (Windisch, 2015[1]).
Box 2.7. Relevant domestic examples: Basic skills assessment for adults in England
The bksb system for assessing, measuring and promoting learning
Bksb is a company operating in the EdTech field with the aim of supporting learners in improving their English, Mathematics and ITC skills via eLearning solutions. The instruments they provide are designed to allow learners to meet GCSE and Functional Skills criteria and they offer support to educational providers as well.
The system employed by bksb to assess and promote learning is innovative as it is based on artificial intelligence. In fact, the initial assessment is not achieved through the response to some questions chosen at random but selects the questions through an algorithm that takes into account the likelihood of guessing the correct answer as well as the previous responses. Such operations are made possible through a machine learning approach based on millions of tests taken by users. As a result of this process, the learners are assigned to a specific level of competence/learning, and assigned a distance from the next level. Moreover, the bksb system promotes learning by measuring learners’ improvement from their initial assessment after undertaking training. The bksb platform for learning is employed by 90% of colleges in the United Kingdom and it has won for three years the Bett awards for “Company of the Year”.
The National Numeracy Challenge and the Essentials of Numeracy
National Numeracy, an independent charity, provides accessible and scalable numeracy assessment tools to identify and address poor numeracy. Its focus is not only on skills but also on attitude and confidence. For example, the National Numeracy Challenge helps people identify their confidence levels in numeracy and engages adults in activities that aim to enhance their numeracy skills. It starts with a check-up test using adaptive questions to assess the users’ level of proficiency, shows the areas that would need improvement and suggests appropriate learning resources, and finally allows users to re-take the test to measure their improvements. This tool can be embedded into existing programmes such as recruitment, induction and workplace development.
More than 280 000 individuals have taken part in the challenge. Of those who went on to access the learning resources and retake the test, three quarters improved their numeracy skills. The cost of this improvement was estimated in 2016 to be only GBP 74 per user. National Numeracy has received feedback from businesses that the tools have helped to avert costs of poor numeracy – mistakes handling money, staff inefficiencies, and staff shunning key responsibilities or dropping out of apprenticeships because of fears or anxiety about numeracy.
Source: National Numeracy (2017[56]), A new approach to making the UK numerate, https://www.nationalnumeracy.org.uk/news/new-report-signals-concerns-productivity-post-brexit-era.
Various OECD countries utilise skills assessment for adults. France introduced mandatory skills assessments in workplaces, while Canada developed a voluntary basic skills assessment tool tailored to workplaces and with training in mind (Box 2.8). These two examples provide England with different approaches to achieving the goal of systematic and widespread assessment of workers’ skills. France mandates a standard process, while Canada provides a relatively standard set of tools for assessing skills.
Box 2.8. Relevant international examples: Policy tools that can be used to assess employee basic skills and upskilling needs
France – Assessing skill development needs
The mandatory career development interviews
Since the approval of the law n° 2014-288 of 5 Mars 2014, every employer in France must conduct a career development interview (entretien professionnel) every two years. The aim of such meetings is to discuss employees’ further learning needs and to support them in their professional development.
At these interviews, employers discuss career progression opportunities – and the training that can advance these opportunities – with their employees. Moreover, every six years, the meeting needs to include an overview of the employee’s professional pathway, to establish whether the employee has benefited from the professional meetings in those past six years. When the six-year review shows that an employer did not organise the required biennial meetings, or when no sufficient career progression options were provided to the employee, medium-sized and large firms can be sanctioned by having to pay for additional hours on the employee’s personal learning accounts.
Career progression options are deemed sufficient if the employee has benefited from at least two of these: i) participation in at least one training course; ii) acquisition of at least one professional certificate, either through training or through recognition of prior learning; iii) salary or professional progression.
CléA certificate
For the assessment of basic skills, the French social partners at the inter-professional level (Copanef) developed the CléA certificate in 2016. This certificate should assist employed individuals in their career progress and help unemployed individuals who do not have any formal qualification, but possess relevant basic skills, in finding a job. To obtain the certificate candidates (employed or unemployed individuals) can get in touch with a CléA contact point, which assesses the candidate’s basic skills. If the candidate lacks the necessary skills, a personalised training plan is made. Training is generally provided through short-term and practical programmes. The CléA training can be taken within the framework of existing training policies. Once a candidate obtains the necessary skill level, the certificate can be granted by a jury.
Canada – Skills Assessment tools
The Government of Canada and provincial/territorial governments fund a series of tools for citizens for skills assessments in terms of numeracy, literacy and document use indicators.
For example, the Workforce Skills Assessment Tools designed to help determine which basic skills an employee requires to be successful at work, and assist employees in developing these skills. Both workers and employers can use the tool. In the employer’s case, the tool is used to help match employees to the right jobs, keep staff, and support employees in their move along a career path within the organisation. Based on an individual’s response to the assessment questions (which takes approximately 30 minutes to complete), a free summary report will identify improvement areas and provide training suggestions to help strengthen specific skills – though it is not a stand-alone method to determine an individual’s skills or competencies.
Moreover, the Essential Skills Mobile App Assessment Tool for Teachers and Students allows both individuals and employers to assess and develop the basic skills required in every workplace. It too helps employers match employees to the right jobs and maintain staff and support employees in learning basic workplace skills. The assessment, which takes approximately 20 minutes to complete, asks questions about the nine essential workplace skills such as reading, writing, numeracy, thinking and document use. Based on the assessment results, further training will be provided to help the employee build skills in weak areas.
Finally, TOWES (the Test of Workplace Essential Skills) is Canada’s premier literacy and essential skills assessment instrument. Since its introduction in 1998, over 120 000 people have used TOWES on their pathways to success in education, employment and life. Several studies, carried out primarily between 2002 and 2012, have confirmed the effectiveness of TOWES in providing reliable information regarding the skills of individuals, as well as their competences for their workplaces.
These two examples provide England with different approaches to achieving the goal of systematic and widespread assessment of workers’ skills. France mandates a standard process, while Canada provides a relatively standard set of tools for assessing skills.
Source: OECD (2017[59]), Getting Skills Right: France, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264284456-en; Skills/Compétences Canada (2020[60]), Essential Skills Resources, https://www.skillscompetencescanada.com/en/essential-skills/resources/; Government of Canada (2019[61]), Tools, assessments and training support - Canada.ca, https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/essential-skills/tools.html#tab1; Government of Newfoundland and Labrador (n.d.[62]), Workforce Skills Assessment, http://www.nlhrmanager.ca/index.php%3Foption=com_content&view=article&id=186.html; TOWES (n.d.[63]), TOWES - Canada's Essential Credential, http://www.towes.com/en/home/home.
Recommendation for assessing workers’ basic skills needs:
The government and stakeholders should support the widespread implementation of tools to assess the skills development needs, motivations and barriers of workers likely to have low basic skills. They could consider Unionlearn’s SkillCheck tool, National Numeracy’s tools, and even the OECD’s Education & Skills Online assessment based on the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), while drawing on different but promising practices in countries like France and Canada. Government and stakeholders should target the tool to those most likely lacking basic skills, based on the available data analytics. The government should consider whether mandating some form of skills assessment in low-skilled sectors is necessary.
Policy option 2.3: Providing tailored guidance and information to low-skilled workers and their employers
Targeted outreach, guidance and information for low-skilled workers and employers about basic skills complements broader awareness-raising efforts (policy option 2.1), and can be effectively targeted with reliable information on the profile and needs of low-skilled workers (policy option 2.2).
England’s approach to providing targeted guidance and information to low-skilled workers and their employers is fragmented, and requires more public support. More consistent and effective messages about the benefits of and opportunities for basic skills training are needed. This includes promoting adult apprenticeships and other formal programmes that can both remediate basic skills and improve workers’ technical skills and employability (see policy option 4.1 on improving the basic skills content in formal education).
Undertaking outreach and providing individualised advice and guidance services can encourage more low-skilled workers to participate in learning. Reaching out to workers and recruiting participants is essential because of low-skilled workers’ lower willingness and higher barriers to learn (Windisch, 2015[1]). Outreach activities include not only engaging learners individually but also reaching out to employers to encourage them to support basic skills courses in the workplace.
Guidance and counselling are defined as “a range of activities such as information, assessment, orientation and advice to assist learners, trainers and other staff to make choices relating to education and training programmes or employment opportunities.” (Decision No 1720/2006/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council). These activities can include counselling for personal, career development or educational guidance; assessment of skills and mental health; information on learning and labour market opportunities; consultation with peers, relatives or educators; vocational preparation; and referrals to learning or career specialists (Raschauer and Resch, 2016[64]).
The content of this information and advice is important to get right. To be effective, career guidance takes into account timely labour market information and the outputs of skill assessment and anticipation exercises (OECD, 2019[37]). It should build upon an assessment of adults’ learning needs (policy option 2.2), and promote training programmes and pathways based on evidence about their potential skills and employment benefits for low-skilled workers.
It can be challenging to get tailored information, advice and guidance to low-skilled workers and their employers. Workers typically have less access to such information, advice and guidance than jobseekers, who automatically qualify for publicly-funded services and have more time to actively participate. Employers may lack contact with the providers of such services, and may not be actively looking for them. In most countries, career guidance is delivered through a range of channels, including public employment services, specialised guidance services, career guidance websites, as well as by education providers and social partners (OECD, 2019[37]). However, these providers may not prioritise low-skilled workers.
According to 2016 Employer Perspectives Survey, most employers in England do not seek or receive advice on skill and training related issues. This is even more the case in some low-skilled sectors, such as wholesale and retail. However, for the few employers that do seek or receive advice on skill and training, they are more likely to get it from training providers and collectives and representatives, than from government or other private sources (Figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3. Not many employers have received advice or help on skill and training issues
Where employers have received advice or help on skill and training related issues in the past 12 months, by sector, England
Note: The values for “Average of other sectors” consist in the averages for each category among the sectors of “Primary sector and utilities”, “Construction”, “Hotels and restaurants”, “Transport, Storage and Communications”, “Financial services”, “Business services”, “Public administration”, “Education”, and “Arts and other services”. The averages are weighted by the relative size of each sector on the total sample of firms.
Source: Based on Shury et al. (2017[17]), Employer Perspectives Survey 2016, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/622343/EPS_2016_UK_Report.pdf.
Non-government actors, such as social partners and training providers, are playing a major role in providing targeted guidance and information about basic skills to low-skilled workers and their employers, and could be better supported.
Further education and skills providers and social partners have an important role in providing guidance. As shown in Figure 2.3, training providers – including further education colleges, community learning providers4 and other private providers – offer not only basic skills courses but also advice or help on skill and training issues. Within the union-led programme Unionlearn, Union Learning Representatives (ULRs) help identify individual learning needs, provide information on accessing funded learning, and on local learning providers, colleges and learning centres (Box 2.9). They also suggest online tools that can also improve IT skills. ULRs can also help people develop confidence, which has the potential to lead to other learning opportunities. ULRs use different means (posters, noticeboards, emails, face-to-face contact, quiz and photos) to reach those in need. Unionlearn publishes guides for ULRs to share engagement ideas (Unionlearn, 2017[55]).
Employers also have a very important role in motivating workers to learn. An analysis of 18 literacy and numeracy courses in 15 companies in New Zealand, (Benseman, 2012[65]) found that the best results of publicising and recruiting potential learners were achieved when managers, supervisors or key people in the office proactively shoulder-tapped potential participants (Windisch, 2015[1]). An interim evaluation of DfE’s adult learner outreach pilots in five of England’s local areas found that learners responded positively to becoming aware of learning opportunities in the workplace. Information from employers meant that training was implicitly endorsed by the employer and motivated participation. The evaluation also confirmed the importance of outreach being perceived by learners as personally relevant, particularly where messages are linked to individuals’ professional development plans and career aspirations (Learning and Work Institute, 2019[66]).
However, non-government actors alone cannot be expected to reach low-skilled workers and their employers effectively with guidance. Despite this, publicly-funded guidance and counselling services for low-skilled workers and their employers are limited.
Indeed across the EU, most countries do not have a structural guidance service that could be used by every adult enquiring about education and training opportunities, rather focusing such guidance on the unemployed (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2015[8]). However, this is changing, with an increasing number of countries devoting the resources of their public employment services and other agencies to motivate workers to engage in upskilling (OECD, 2019[37]).
Jobcentre Plus (JCP), England’s public employment service (PES), does not currently provide tailored guidance services to low-skilled workers. In 2012, England launched the National Careers Service, replacing and building on the former 'Next Step' service, which provide publicly funded guidance and information services that are available to low-skilled workers and their employers. However, the National Careers Service provides information and guidance on learning, training and work opportunities via its website, by email and over the telephone, rather than through highly targeted or face to face counselling.
The Cost & Outreach Pilots (Learning and Work Institute, 2019[66]), mentioned above, also showed in-depth guidance to be uncommon even in the context of face to face guidance.5 In most cases where information, advice and guidance (IAG) was experienced, this did not take the form of in-depth advice or guidance. Work coaches/careers advisers typically identified and provided information about relevant courses for learners. These interactions did not influence participants’ attitudes and behaviours or inform their decision making to take up learning. Several participants stated that, in retrospect, they would have welcomed more substantive IAG, and the IAG could have been more effective if linked to education and training providers (Learning and Work Institute, 2019[66]).
Greater public investment will likely be needed to ensure low-skilled workers have access to targeted guidance and counselling that motivates learning. This could be directed to expanding the guidance services of Union Learning Representatives (ULRs) and National Careers Service for low-skilled workers. Furthermore, a growing trend in OECD countries is for public employment services to play a greater role in providing services to low-skilled workers, such as in-work training. Following these trends, the JCP’s role could be expanded to provide guidance not only to the unemployed and Universal Credit recipients (OECD, 2017[67]), but also to low-skilled workers.
Guidance counsellors should follow established best practice for reaching low-skilled adults and workers in particular. For example, the Skills for Life Strategy Unit had developed a guidebook based on best practice that advises: i) an initial, informal one-on-one interview to put learners at their ease and to gather background information about them; ii) provision of information about the range of possible programmes; and iii) a detailed diagnostic assessment comprising a short series of tasks to establish literacy, language or numeracy needs. Such guidance should be followed and improved over time.
Box 2.9. Relevant domestic examples: Unionlearn outreach and guidance
The trade union-led programme Unionlearn in the United Kingdom, established in 2006, helps workers to gain new skills and qualifications to improve their employability. Among other activities, Unionlearn is responsible for training Union Learning Representatives, who are the first point of contact for workers who want to access learning opportunities.
Union Learning Representatives are in charge of promoting learning in companies, supporting learners to identify their training needs, and arranging education and basic skill training opportunities. UnionLearn’s programmes also seek to build learner confidence through peer-to-peer support, and take advantage of the existing relationship and trust between workers and trade union representatives. The representatives also support workers to tackle the barriers that prevent them from participating in learning.
Since the establishment of Unionlearn, more than 40 000 representatives have been trained. More than 250 000 workers receive learning opportunities each year, especially workers with no or low qualifications. According to an evaluation report of 2016, Union Learning Representatives represented the main channel (52%) through which the learners surveyed became engaged in union learning activities. Moreover, according to the same report, 77% of employers reported that they experienced a positive return from investing in supporting the representatives and union learning.
Source: OECD (2020[68]), Getting Skills Right: Continuous Learning in Working Life in Finland, https://doi.org/10.1787/2ffcffe6-en; OECD (2019[69]), Getting Skills Right: Engaging Low-skilled Adults in Learning, http://www.oecd.org/employment/emp/engaging-low-skilled-adults-2019.pdf; Pennacchia, Jones and Aldridge (2018[70]), Barriers to Learning for Disadvantaged Groups,
Denmark and Austria have national guidance and advisory services, which are available to low-skilled workers (Box 2.10). These cases highlight for England the importance of a targeted, user-centred and personalised approach to motivate low skilled adults to learn.
Box 2.10. Relevant international examples: Targeted guidance and information for low-skilled workers
Denmark – Network of career guidance centres (Voksen- og EfterUddannelse)
In 2010, Denmark established a network of 13 career guidance centres known as VEU centres (Voksen- og EfterUddannelse) to act as a 'one-stop entrance' for adult education and training. Alongside individual guidance for adults, they also provide counselling services to businesses (especially SME's) regarding the CVET provision.
These centres provide free of charge one to one career guidance sessions, along with other educational programmes. Moreover, some of the centres also organise second opportunity programmes for adults who were early school leavers, while other centres offer intensive vocational education and training (VET) and technical skills training. Noticeably, the individual characteristic of the sessions allow for a precise targeting of the advice provided, which ensures its value for the individual. Qualitative evidence from Denmark suggests that the VEU Centres have contributed to more effective and efficient delivery of adult learning, having helped to reduce gaps in participation across the country’s different regions.
Austria – Central advice centre for basic education and literacy
Guidance support can also be directed towards adults with a low level of basic skills. Austria has established a specific central level institution that delivers guidance services related to basic skills and literacy (Zentrale Beratungsstelle für Basisbildung und Alphabetisierung).
This Advice Centre offers services to learners, providers and teachers. They support learners looking for a basic education course in reading, writing or mathematics. The services for learners include an advanced search feature that allows individuals to look for courses close to their area of residence and in the specific domain they are interested, which allow for better targeting. The centres also offer a platform to providers to have their courses recognised and inserted in the search engine, and provide teaching material as well as information on available job offers to teachers.
These cases highlight for England the importance of a targeted approach to guidance for low-skilled workers, who are generally less motivated to engage in learning. In particular, the user-centred approach and personalised tools used in these examples could help ensure the value of advice and guidance for users.
Source: OECD (2018[71]), Skills Strategy Implementation Guidance for Slovenia, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264308459-en; Windisch (2015[1]), Adults with Low Literacy and Numeracy Skills: A Literature Review on Policy Intervention, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jrxnjdd3r5k-en; bifeb (n.d.[72]), bundesinstitut für erwachsenenbildung: eb Beratung, https://www.bifeb.at/programm/eb-beratung; OECD (2017[73]), Educational Opportunity for All: Overcoming Inequality throughout the Life Course, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264287457-en.
Those providing guidance and information to low-skilled workers and employers should promote the proven benefits of existing programmes that solely or partly target basic skills.
A recent English study evaluated returns to completing English and maths courses for (adults 19+) taken as part of more substantial qualifications in FE colleges. It finds that an average earning premium associated with completing maths and English courses ranges from 4% to 6% if compared to those who did not manage to complete similar courses. Earning premiums are higher for younger adults (aged 19‑24) (Buscha et al., 2013[74]). In particular, England could more effectively promote adult apprenticeships as an effective means to basic skills development, in order to motivate more low-skilled workers to learn.
As noted earlier (Chapter 1), apprenticeships can play an important role in raising worker’s basic skills and should be promoted to low-skilled workers. Apprenticeships in England require and support apprentices to achieve Level 2 English and maths (Kuczera and Field, 2018[75]). They are becoming one of the most important forms of learning for low-skilled workers in England. Around 62% of England’s apprentices are incumbent workers (the others are new, typically younger recruits)6 (Thornton et al., 2018[76]). Apprenticeships are concentrated in the three economic sectors with the most low-skilled adults in England – wholesale and retail, health and manufacturing. In all but a few sectors, the majority of starts are in intermediate, Level 2 apprenticeships, corresponding to GCSE level.
Apprenticeships are also a good instrument for small and medium-sized enterprises, given that SMEs – who do not pay the Apprenticeship Levy – now receive full government support for apprenticeships, for example a special payment, training cost exemption and reduced fee for apprenticeships (from 10% to 5% of the training costs).7 However, employers in sectors with more low-skilled workers appear to know less about apprenticeships. For example, 43% of employers in the wholesale and retail sector currently offer, or have a “good” or “very good” knowledge of apprenticeships, compared to almost 50% on average across sectors. Raising awareness of adult apprenticeships could attract more low-skilled workers to learn, and in turn improve their basic skills. Of course, monitoring the effectiveness and relevance of adult apprenticeships for low-skilled workers after recent reforms will also be essential (see Chapter 4).
Recommendation for improving guidance and information for low-skilled workers and their employers:
The government should expand publicly funded personal career guidance and information services for low-skilled workers and their employers, in order to motivate basic skills development. Greater public investment could be directed to expanding the guidance services of Union Learning Representatives (ULRs), National Careers Service and/or Jobcentre Plus, for example. It could involve investments in physical centres for guidance targeting low-skilled adults, as in Denmark and Austria. The government should continuously monitor the uptake and impact of face-to-face career guidance and information, to ensure it is effective in raising participation in basic skills development. England should also more actively promote vocational qualifications with basic skills content, such as intermediate level adult apprenticeships, as a promising mode for delivering basic skills to low-skilled adults and their employers.
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[11] Unionlearn (n.d.), TUC unionlearn | The home of union learning & skills, https://www.unionlearn.org.uk/.
[1] Windisch, H. (2015), “Adults with low literacy and numeracy skills: A literature review on policy intervention”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 123, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jrxnjdd3r5k-en.
[16] Winterbotham, M. et al. (2018), Employer skills survey 2017 Research report, Department for Education (England), https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/746493/ESS_2017_UK_Report_Controlled_v06.00.pdf.
[20] Winterbotham, M. et al. (2020), Employer Skills Survey 2019, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/925744/Employer_Skills_Survey_2019_research_report.pdf.
Notes
← 1. According to the Behavioural Insights Team, in FE colleges, weekly text messages of encouragement to adult learners enrolled in mathematics and English courses improved attendance rates by 22% and achievement rates by 16%. A social support intervention improved achievement rates by 27%. Finally, an intervention that incorporated a short writing exercise, where learners reflect on their personal values and why they are important to them, improved attainment by 25%. However, in a work-based setting, experimental approaches aimed at obtaining similar results did not yield the same results (Hume et al., 2018[12]).
← 2. The number of employees working fewer hours due to attending a training course has declined from 140 000 in 1995 to 20 000 in 2014.
← 3. The Index digital capability measure complements Basic Digital Skills, as it analyses individuals’ actual behavioural data.
← 4. Publicly-subsidised community learning provides a broad range of flexible non-formal learning opportunities, ranging from personal development through to older people’s learning, IT courses, employability skills, family learning, and activities to promote civic engagement and community development. Courses are structured but usually unaccredited. Providers include local authorities, further education colleges, community groups and voluntary (third) sector organisations, such as the University of the Third Age (U3A), an organisation of retired and semi-retired people, learning for pleasure rather than for any qualification.
← 5. From 173 survey responses and 60 semi-structured interviews with learners enrolled on subsidised courses, only 18 had experiences of information, advice and guidance (IAG).
← 6. In 2019/20, under 19 years old account for 32.3% (40 700), 19 to 24-year-olds account for 29.3% (36 800), and those aged 25 and over account for 38.4%% (48 300). Those aged 25 and over have consistently had the highest share of starts each year over the period 2014/15 to 2018/19.
← 7. A special payment of GBP 1 500 per apprentice is made available to smaller employers who have not recruited an apprentice in the last 12 months and want to take an apprentice aged 16-24 (Kuczera and Field, 2018[75]). Non-levy paying employers including SMEs must pay 10% of the training and assessment costs when they take on apprentices but it will be reduced to 5%; small employers are able to train at no cost those aged 19-24 with certain conditions and these employers are not required to contribute the 5% co-investment; instead, the government will pay 100% of the training costs for these individuals.