OECD food systems resources

Explore recent OECD food systems-related reports, working papers and policy briefs.

Key food systems resources

Making Better Policies for Food Systems

Food systems around the world face a triple challenge: providing food security and nutrition for a growing global population; supporting livelihoods for those working along the food supply chain; and contributing to environmental sustainability. Better policies hold tremendous promise for making progress in these domains.

Towards Sustainable Land Use

Land use is central to many of the environmental and socio-economic issues facing society today. This report examines on-going challenges for aligning land-use policy with climate, biodiversity and food objectives, and the opportunities to enhance the sustainability of land-use systems.

Towards Sustainable Land Use

Rural Well-Being: Geography of Opportunities

Rural Well-being: Geography of Opportunities presents the latest iteration on this policy framework, reflecting several important changes in rural development in recent years. Fully taking into account the variety of situations characterising rural regions, the new policy framework leverages improved data and analysis while broadening the scope from economic focus to encompass the environmental and social dimensions of well-being.

Rural Well-Being: Geography of Opportunities

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30/10/2023

Report

Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2023

This annual report monitors and evaluates agricultural policies in 54 countries, including the 38 OECD countries, the five non-OECD EU Member States, and 11 emerging economies. It finds that support to agriculture has reached record levels amidst subsequent crises, although the increase in support has been less than the sector’s growth. After COVID-19, governments have taken significant action to limit the impacts of the war in Ukraine on the farming sector and markets. This year’s report focuses on policies for climate-change adaptation and identifies close to 600 adaptation measures adopted by governments, but notes that more action is required to advance the implementation, monitoring and assessment of adaptation measures. The report also finds that most of the support for the sector comes in forms that reduce rather than enhance the sector’s capacity to adjust to future crises, including climate change. In line with the 2022 OECD Agriculture Ministerial Declaration, the report identifies key actions to focus policy efforts on improving agriculture and the food system’s resilience to successive shocks while also enhancing the sector’s environmental performance and productivity.

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22/09/2023

Paper

Towards resilient food systems

This paper explores food supply chain resilience and its connection to resilience of food systems more broadly. In terms of availability and affordability, food supply chains have been resilient to a wide range of shocks. Trade plays an important risk pooling role in allowing countries to draw on international markets in the face of domestic shocks. Some domestic policies have helped absorb supply chain shocks, for example support to low-income households or the removal of supply chain bottlenecks. Other measures like export restrictions exacerbate instability. The concept of food systems resilience goes further than availability and affordability of food. It includes broader objectives (like livelihoods and environmental sustainability), and must also anticipate a broader range of shocks, as well as the pressures generated by food systems themselves on the environment. Policy makers should therefore take a more complete systems-wide view of resilience.

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30/08/2023

Paper

Developing food labels for improved health outcomes

Simplified nutrition labelling policies provide supplementary nutritional information in an easy-to-understand label displayed on food products at the front-of-pack. Forty-four countries have introduced these types of labelling schemes with a view to promoting positive public health outcomes. Preliminary insights on the impact of these schemes show that they can influence reformulation efforts by the food industry as well as consumers’ purchasing decisions. The schemes differ, however, across several dimensions including implementation methods (voluntary or mandatory), the extent to which they provide consumers with nutrient information versus nutrition advice, the conveyed message, targeted products, design and appearance, and accompanying national policy mix. Their rapid proliferation across the world has led to a diversity of schemes which can have implications for private sector decisions and trade. Mechanisms to improve the availability of information and reduce administrative hurdles should be considered in order to improve the integration and use of such schemes, and to facilitate trade. Improving consistency across the nutrient criteria that underpin the different schemes could be considered when reviews are undertaken, especially at the regional level.

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11/07/2023

Paper

Climate change adaptation policies to foster resilience in agriculture

National climate change adaptation programmes can strengthen agriculture’s resilience to adverse climatic events by investing in absorptive capacity to mitigate the impact of a shock in the short run, adaptive capacity to effect incremental changes in the medium run, and transformative capacity to create fundamentally new agricultural production systems in the long run. Using UNFCCC reporting documents, this analysis takes stock of agricultural climate change adaptation programmes in OECD countries and evaluates their contribution to developing resilience. Significant investments have been undertaken in the creation of decision support tools, the management of soil and water resources, and cultivar selection and breeding to address key agricultural vulnerabilities, namely drought, flooding and declining crop yields. Adaptation programmes developed to date most heavily emphasise adaptive capacity to address sustained and growing climate risks. Actions that contribute to transformative capacity are beginning to emerge, but lag behind medium-run measures.

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11/07/2023

Paper

Guidelines for the development of an OECD farmland habitat biodiversity indicator

With half of the world’s habitable land being used for agriculture, monitoring the biodiversity on agricultural land is essential for meeting the objectives of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). This paper seeks to advance the monitoring of farmland biodiversity in OECD countries by investigating current national initiatives and proposing guidelines for the development of an indicator based on habitat. The proposed approach provides a flexible and pragmatic framework to harmonise reporting from national programmes while accommodating cross-country diversity in contextual factors, including farming systems, climate, biophysical conditions and species pools. To facilitate implementation in the near term, the indicator includes a three-tiered approach to reporting based on data availability, which accommodates countries with limited data resources as well as those that currently have monitoring programmes in place.

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07/07/2023

Report

OECD-FAO Business Handbook on Deforestation and Due Diligence in Agricultural Supply Chains

This handbook was developed by OECD and FAO to help companies embed considerations on deforestation and forest degradation into their corporate due diligence procedures. It is informed by FAO’s extensive work and experience on halting deforestation and forest degradation and promoting responsible governance of tenure. The handbook builds on the leading international, government-backed standards on supply chain due diligence and responsible business conduct: the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises on Responsible Business Conduct and the associated due diligence framework set out in the OECD-FAO Guidance for Responsible Agricultural Supply Chains and the OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Business Conduct. This handbook demonstrates how the OECD-FAO Guidance can be applied to address deforestation by contextualising existing recommendations and directing users towards helpful sources of due diligence information.

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07/07/2023

Paper

Understanding the impact of consumer-oriented assurance schemes

Assurance schemes (certifications and labels) are widespread in the agri-food sector. This paper reviews the landscape of existing schemes, and the evidence on whether labels change consumer behaviour, and whether assurance schemes achieve positive change on the farm. The impact of existing labels on shopping behaviours appears limited: even for well-established schemes, market shares remain low, as factors such as taste, health, or price appear to dominate consumer decisions. Regarding farm-level effects, not all crops, standards, and geographies have been equally well studied, and many studies find no effect; but when an effect is found, it is usually positive. The paper identifies actions to improve the effectiveness and inclusiveness of existing and new assurance schemes, and also highlights the new trend of labels which communicate environmental impacts, rather than conformity with process or production requirements.

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06/07/2023

Report

OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2023-2032

The OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2023-2032 provides a consensus assessment of the ten-year prospects for agricultural commodity and fish markets at national, regional, and global levels, and serves as a reference for forward-looking policy analysis and planning. Recent surges in agricultural input prices experienced over the last two years have raised concerns about global food security. This year’s Outlook demonstrates that rising fertiliser costs can lead to higher food prices. A new feature of the OECD-FAO Aglink-Cosimo model allows the impact of changing costs of the main mineral fertilisers to be analysed separately from costs of other production inputs. Based on this new feature, a scenario analysis estimates that for each 1% increase in fertiliser prices, agricultural commodity prices would increase by 0.2%. Global food consumption – the main use of agricultural commodities – is projected to increase by 1.3% per year over the next decade, a slower pace than the previous decade due to the foreseen slowdown in population and per capita income growth. This year’s Outlook also provides improved estimates for food consumption by incorporating for the first time calculation methods to estimate food loss and waste. This report is a collaborative effort between the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, prepared with inputs from Member countries and international commodity organisations. It highlights fundamental economic and social trends that drive the global agri-food sector, assuming there are no major changes to weather conditions or policies. More information can be found at www.agri-outlook.org.

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06/07/2023

Paper

Overcoming evidence gaps on food systems

There is a growing awareness of the need to transform food systems. Yet successful actions require sound evidence: on the extent, characteristics, and drivers of issues; on the effectiveness of different policy instruments, and their synergies and trade-offs; on how policy proposals would affect stakeholders; and on citizens’ values and preferences. There are considerable evidence gaps on many of these aspects. This paper presents the main findings from the OECD project “Overcoming Evidence Gaps on Food Systems,” which aimed to identify different types of evidence gaps, as well as pragmatic approaches to overcome these. The project explored this question through three “deep dives” on food insecurity and food assistance programmes across OECD countries, gender and food systems, and environmental impacts along food supply chains. Overall, there is a strong case for greater investment in overcoming evidence gaps for food systems.

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30/06/2023

Paper

Mitigating the impact of extreme weather events on agricultural markets through trade

Extreme weather events can disrupt agricultural markets, but agricultural trade can help address subsequent food security concerns. Using the Aglink-Cosimo model, this stochastic scenario analysis sheds light on the complex relationships between trade and food security in an environment where extreme weather events create uncertainty. The analysis suggests that trade integration makes countries less vulnerable to negative yield shocks by mitigating the risk of extreme food prices and by stabilising food availability. Although no model can capture the complex process and consequences of opening this sector to trade, it is clear that trade integration needs to be part of a wider coherent policy package to improve food security.

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28/06/2023

Paper

Fostering agricultural and rural policy dialogue

Agricultural and rural policies can benefit from potential synergies when designed correctly. Broadly speaking, agricultural policies target farms and food production, while rural policies focus on ensuring the development of a territory and the well-being of the rural population. Despite these differences, both policies are often applied within the same territory and share a growing interest in improving environmental sustainability and adapting to climate change, as well as improving inclusiveness, food security and nutrition, and increasing productivity and innovation. This paper calls for a constructive dialogue on policies and processes to enhance the synergies and coherence in policy advice, and helping to resolve possible trade-offs between agricultural and rural policies. There are many opportunities to build on potential synergies, including on the role of agriculture in structural change in rural areas, on diversifying farm and rural economies, and on ensuring environmental sustainability.

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14/06/2023

Paper

Costs, benefits and effectiveness of remote audits for international food safety

Remote audits enabled international food trade to continue despite the severe COVID-19 pandemic disruptions, but what is their role in the future? Based on case studies and an OECD survey, this report examines the cost, benefits and effectiveness of remote audits. The analysis reveals that key benefits include lower travel expenses, reduced emissions footprints, more flexible use of time, and opportunities to train and involve more staff. There were nevertheless major drawbacks, including limitations to gather audit evidence, a heavy additional burden of preparation time, internet connectivity issues, and the lack of interpersonal engagement. In general, most stakeholders consider remote audits to be less effective than on-site audits, particularly for those of regulatory systems or for the physical auditing of establishments. This report highlights the need to harmonise the terminology in this area of work, and to develop practical guidelines on how and when to conduct remote audits.

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13/06/2023

Chapter

Household behaviour and food consumption

in "How Green is Household Behaviour?"

Food systems emit around one third of global anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHGs), with livestock production accounting for 32% of all agricultural emissions. This chapter summarises responses to questions on food consumption in the third round of the OECD Survey on Environmental Policies and Individual Behaviour Change (EPIC). The chapter analyses the data on households’ food consumption behaviour across the nine countries surveyed, including their frequency of consuming seasonal and organic food, whether households source locally, the frequency with which they consume rad meat and their willingness to consume meat alternatives, and their priorities when purchasing food. It also explores respondents’ support for various public policies to promote the sustainability of food systems.

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15/05/2023

Paper

Characterising farming resilience capacities

Improving the resilience of farmers against external shocks is a priority for policy makers. This paper measures the resilience of a sample of farmers in the United Kingdom to assess the impact of the 2011-12 drought on their productivity and income. The analysis allows for the distinction of four resilience capacities: to prepare; to absorb the immediate impact of the shock; to adapt farming practices to a new environment; and to transform the business model, and improve productivity and income in the longer term. Results show that a single farm rarely performs strongly across these four capacities, and that those farms that best absorb the impact of the drought, perform poorly in transforming their business after the shock. While size and diversification improve absorption and adaptation, innovation is a key driver of long-term resilience to keep the pace of productivity gains. In the past, policies on agricultural risk management focused on the absorption capacity of farms and on stabilising income. Forward-looking resilience policies today need to prioritise other capacities, in particular preparedness, adaptation and transformation.

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29/04/2023

Report

Business Handbook on Due Diligence in the Cocoa Sector

This handbook aims to help companies identify, prevent and address child labour and forced labour risks, in the cocoa sector. The handbook builds on the leading international, government-backed standards on supply chain due diligence and responsible business conduct: the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and the associated OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Business Conduct, and the OECD-FAO Guidance for Responsible Agricultural Supply Chains. This handbook was developed in collaboration with the International Cocoa Initiative (ICI), with financial support from the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and technical inputs from the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GIZ).

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12/04/2023

Paper

Towards a taxonomy of agri-environmental regulations

Regulations are an important part of the policy toolkit governments can use to address climate and environmental objectives in agriculture. This report reviews existing literature on the characteristics and assessment of environmental regulations in agriculture. It finds that direct evidence on the outcomes and cost-effectiveness of agri-environmental regulations is generally limited and situation-specific. However, a taxonomy that classifies and organises information on regulations can give a sense of their number, the environmental domains covered, and the scope and depth of their application. This is potentially useful with respect to measuring progress on international commitments for action on climate change mitigation and other analysis.

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11/04/2023

Paper

Pursuing higher environmental goals for agriculture in an interconnected world

Governments in many countries are pursuing higher environmental goals for agriculture. However, in an interconnected world, the unilateral adoption of environmental policies for agriculture can reduce the producers’ competitiveness and induce pollution leakage. This report analyses these challenges and discusses policy solutions, focusing on two examples: climate change mitigation policies and policies limiting the environmental impacts of pesticides. The extent of competitiveness and leakage effects is found to depend on market conditions, differences in pollution intensity, and the type of environmental policy adopted. Two policy routes are identified to improve agriculture’s environmental performance while maintaining the benefits of global markets. The first route relies on “direct” environmental policies, such as market-based instruments or regulations, which are rapidly effective in limiting environmental impacts but may require additional complementary policies to limit their potential competitiveness and leakage impacts. The second route involves alternative policies acting on agricultural supply, demand, or through private sector engagement, which limit competitiveness and leakage impacts but may require time to be environmentally effective.

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14/02/2023

Paper

Sanitary and phytosanitary approval procedures

Approval procedures are critical to sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) systems as they uphold countries’ commitments to facilitate safe trade. However, they can create significant costs and act as non-tariff barriers if not properly administered. This report examines the costs and opportunities that are associated with seven of the most pressing issues related to the administration of approval procedures. The analysis reveals that countries have increasingly raised specific trade concerns (STCs) to the WTO about issues related to approval procedures. Furthermore, gravity analysis demonstrates that trading partners dealing with STCs related to approval procedures trade 26% less on average than those not dealing with any STC. An OECD survey specifically designed to evaluate how issues related to approval procedures can be addressed indicates that multiple solutions exist to enhance efficiencies in agro-food trade, such as digitalizing SPS systems, relying on international standards or simplifying SPS measures.

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02/02/2023

Paper

Electronic sanitary certificates for trade in animal products

Electronic exchange of sanitary and phytosanitary certificates can facilitate trade in animal and plant products. The electronic exchange of certificates can benefit both exporting and importing countries through enhanced efficiency gains, improved transparency, and traceability, as well as improved risk management along the food chain. However, the policy levers associated with e-sanitary certification systems are complex and include trade policies, as well as regulatory policies, investment policies, and public health and animal health policies. Countries face substantial challenges in the adoption of electronic sanitary certification systems including the costs associated with building the infrastructure, providing training, and updating existing regulatory systems. This paper reviews the uptake of e-sanitary certification systems and discusses the potential benefits and costs of adoption of these systems. Effective co-operation and collaboration between the public and private sectors are critical to the adoption and maintenance of sustainable e-sanitary certification systems.

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02/02/2023

Paper

Decoding agricultural tariffs

Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) have become the major route for countries to reduce trade barriers and open new markets. To fully assess the current state of market opening for agricultural products and examine the potential impacts of RTAs, access to up-to-date and consistent information on preferential tariffs is crucial. There are multiple databases that collect information on preferential tariffs; however, it is not always easy to identify how these databases differ in terms of their data collection, treatment and representation, nor which database is the most appropriate for a specific type of analysis. This practical guide aims to help trade negotiators, policy makers, researchers, and private sector actors to identify which international or national database to use for their analysis of preferential tariffs on agricultural products.

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