This chapter examines the size of the Ghanaian diaspora in the main destination countries, and its evolution since 2000. It provides a socio‑demographic analysis, focusing on age and educational distribution, emphasising differences by sex and across destination countries. For the central destination countries, it provides a snapshot of the geographic distribution of emigrants, and information on the acquisition of nationality. The chapter also presents evidence on the overall emigration rates of the Ghanaian population and its highly educated population towards OECD countries. The analysis systematically compares the Ghanaian diaspora with two reference groups: the foreign-born population living in the OECD area and emigrants from the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).
A Review of Ghanaian Emigrants
2. Number of Ghanaian emigrants and their socio‑demographic characteristics
Abstract
In Brief
In 2020, approximately 1 million Ghanaian emigrants were living abroad, with almost an equal distribution in African and OECD countries. In Africa, Ghanaian emigrants are mostly concentrated in the ECOWAS area, and Nigeria alone hosts a quarter of the overall diaspora. In the OECD area, five countries – the United States, the United Kingdom, Italy, Germany and Canada – account for almost 90% of the Ghanaian emigrant population.
National estimates of the Ghanaian diaspora are not only outdated – the last census data currently available is from 2010 – but significantly lower than those reported in other sources.
The Ghanaian refugee population of about 14 000 is highly concentrated in neighbouring Togo. While the number of refugees has remained relatively stable in recent years, the number of asylum seekers increased 10‑fold between 2010 and 2020.
In 2019, approximately 9 000 Ghanaian students were enrolled in a tertiary-level institution abroad. Nine out of ten were studying in an OECD country with a preference for English-speaking countries: the United States hosts more than a third of Ghanaian international students.
Women comprise 47% of the Ghanaian diaspora in OECD countries. Conversely, in the African countries for which there is data available, Ghanaian women represent the majority of stocks.
Eight out of ten Ghanaian emigrants in OECD countries are of working age, a higher share than the total foreign-born population.
In 2015/16, more than a third of Ghanaian migrants living in OECD countries had tertiary education, reflecting a strong positive selection of emigrants to the OECD area. The share of tertiary-educated migrants from Ghana is higher in English-speaking countries. Lower-educated emigrants predominate in Italy and Germany.
Almost half of the Ghanaian emigrants held the citizenship of their OECD host country in 2015/16.
In 2015, Ghana had an emigration rate towards OECD countries of 2.3%, the sixth-highest among the ECOWAS countries, and 14% among its highly educated population.
Recent trends in the number of Ghanaian emigrants
One million Ghanaian emigrants live abroad: about half in other African countries and half in OECD countries
According to United Nations estimates, approximately 1 million Ghanaian emigrants lived abroad in 2020, 3.2% of Ghana’s population. This diaspora is distributed almost equally between OECD countries – mainly in North America and Europe (close to 52% of the Ghanaian emigrant population) – and sub-Saharan Africa (48%) (Figure 2.1). In Africa, the Ghanaian diaspora is primarily concentrated in the ECOWAS area, which hosts 46% of all Ghanaian emigrants worldwide.
Box 2.1. The concept of diaspora
This report looks explicitly at people born in Ghana and living abroad, especially in OECD countries. Questions related to the children of emigrants born in host countries are not addressed because data on this group are only available in some OECD countries. The broader diaspora, including children of emigrants born in host countries, can significantly contribute to the economic and social development of the origin country. However, data limitations make it challenging to enumerate them consistently and obtain information about their socio-economic characteristics across OECD countries.
According to UN estimates, Nigeria is the leading destination country, accounting for 24% of all Ghanaian emigrants (approximately 238 000 emigrants). In sub-Saharan Africa, Nigeria is followed by Ghana’s neighbouring countries: Côte d’Ivoire (112 000 emigrants), Togo (47 000), and Burkina Faso (33 000) together account for 19% of the Ghanaian diaspora. Outside of the ECOWAS area, South Africa is also a significant African destination for Ghanaian and continental emigrants, more generally. Outside Africa, the United States is the second leading destination country (201 000 emigrants), followed by the United Kingdom (131 000), Italy (55 000), Germany (33 000) and Canada (25 000).
Figure 2.1. Number of Ghanaian emigrants in main destination countries, 2020 or the latest year available
Note: Data from national statistical offices in destination countries come from censuses, registries or household surveys. Where data are prior to 2015, the year is shown in parentheses next to the country name. Côte d’Ivoire, Germany and Italy estimate the Ghanaian population by the country of citizenship, not the country of birth.
Source: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, International Migrant Stock 2020; Benin (2013 Census via IPUMS); Burkina Faso (2006 Census via IPUMS); Canada (2016 Census data); Côte d’Ivoire (2015 General Household Survey); South Africa (2016 Community Survey via IPUMS); Spain (Eurostat 2019); Togo (2010 Census via IPUMS); the United Kingdom (2011 Census); the United States (American Community Survey pooled data for 2017‑19); Germany (Central Registry for Foreigners, 2019).
Box 2.2. Ghanaian emigrants and their households in the 2010 Census
Ghana is one of the few countries in the ECOWAS area that collects information on its emigrants through a specific census module. Data from the 2010 Population and Housing Census – the most recent census for which data is currently available – indicated that about 250 000 Ghanaians aged 15 and older had been living abroad for at least six months. Among them, 150 000 were living in North America and Europe. However, these figures underestimate the size of the emigrant population as they rely on information provided by household members in Ghana, thus omitting emigrants who were living alone before emigrating, as well as the departure of entire households. In 2010, the actual number of Ghana-born individuals aged 15 and older living in OECD countries was close to 410 000, almost three times the census estimate.
According to the same data source, about half of Ghanaian emigrants in 2010 came from two regions: Ashanti and Accra, two of Ghana’s most populated and urbanised regions (IOM, 2020[1]). Households with emigrants represented approximately 3% of all households in the country. Among the households with emigrants, 71% had only one member abroad, and 16% had two.
The average emigrant was 37 years old, and men represent the majority of stocks (64%), which explains that households in Ghana with at least one emigrant are more likely to be led by women (55%). Once abroad, 76% of Ghanaian emigrants were employed and 14% were studying.
The Ghanaian diaspora makes important contributions to the economic development of their country of origin. In 2020, Ghana received approximately USD 4.3 billion in remittances, which amounts to 6% of its GDP, compared to an ECOWAS average of 7% (Figure 2.2). Between 2010 and 2020, these transfers increased by 32‑fold, peaking in 2015 when Ghanaians abroad remitted approximately USD 5 billion. According to officials of the Bank of Ghana, the sharp increase reflects improved statistics by the Bank of Ghana, as well as a rise in both financial transfers and the use of formal channels (Koyi Teye, Badasu and Yeboah, 2017[2]).
Figure 2.2. Personal remittances sent to Ghana, USD million, 2000‑20
Note: Remittances include workers’ remittances and compensation of employees.
Source: IMF Balance of Payments 2020.
Nearly half a million Ghanaian emigrants live in OECD countries
According to the most recent estimates, about 490 000 people born in Ghana lived in OECD countries in 2020 (Figure 2.3). Ghana is the second-largest ECOWAS origin country of emigrants living in the OECD area after Nigeria (with approximately 940 000). In 2020, Ghana represented 8% of the ECOWAS population but accounted for 16% of all emigrants from ECOWAS countries living in the OECD area. The relative preponderance of its emigrant population can be explained by its economic weight within the bloc (the third-highest GDP per capita of the group) and by a history of extra continental migration that dates back to the 1980s. Economic development in developing countries boosts international migration as more people have the financial resources needed to migrate, and consolidated migrant networks contribute to facilitating emigration (OECD, 2016[3]).
Between 2000 and 2020, the number of emigrants from Ghana living in OECD countries registered a 3‑fold increase. In absolute terms, such growth (+325 000 persons) ranks second only to Nigeria (+682 000 persons). However, in percentage terms, Ghana ranks among the lower half of the ECOWAS countries (Guinea, Togo, Burkina Faso, Gambia, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Liberia and Niger), which is primarily explained by a strong base effect for these countries.
Figure 2.3. Number of emigrants from Ghana and ECOWAS countries living in OECD countries, 2000‑20
Note: Reference population includes all persons.
Source: Data for 2000, 2010 and 2015: OECD Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC). Data for 2020: OECD Secretariat estimates.
Five destination countries account for almost 90% of all Ghanaian emigrants in the OECD area
Despite the increased diversification in destination countries for Ghanaian emigrants over the past 20 years, the leading destination countries in the OECD area have, overall, remained the same. Between 2000 and 2020, the United States, the United Kingdom, Italy, Germany and Canada have constantly ranked as the main host countries (Figure 2.4).
Over time, however, the Ghanaian migrant population has grown more rapidly in certain countries than in others. The United States and the United Kingdom hosted a similar population of Ghanaian migrants at the beginning of the century (62 000 and 53 000, respectively) with a difference of less than 9 000. In 2020, the difference between them had enlarged to approximately 82 000. Since 2000, the Ghanaian diaspora has increased the most in the United States in absolute terms, growing by three‑fold (+131 000) to reach almost 200 000 in 2020. The second-largest absolute increase, observed in the United Kingdom, is significantly lower (+58 000).
In percentage terms, Italy has registered the largest growth, although starting at a much lower base due to the relative recency of Ghanaian immigration. From less than 20 000 Ghanaian migrants in 2000, the population grew 3.3 times by 2020 to reach 55 000. In Germany, the fourth destination country, with approximately 37 000 Ghanaian migrants in 2020, the lack of data provides an incomplete picture of the diaspora’s evolution. However, between 2010 and 2020, this population increased 1.5 times. In Canada, between 2000 and 2015, the population of Ghanaian migrants grew 1.6‑fold.
Figure 2.4. Evolution of the Ghanaian diaspora in main OECD destination countries, 2000‑20
Note: Reference population includes all persons.
Source: Data for 2000, 2010 and 2015: OECD Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC). Data for 2020: OECD Secretariat estimates.
Of the Ghanaian population residing abroad, approximately 13 800 are refugees (Box 2.3). Refugees are, theoretically, estimated as part of the foreign-born population in their respective host countries, but in practice, this depends on data sources and host country practices.
Box 2.3. Ghanaian refugees and asylum seekers
In 2020, there were approximately 14 000 Ghanaian refugees worldwide. The refugee population is highly concentrated in neighbouring Togo, which hosts 61% of the total (Figure 2.5). Between 1982 and 1994 and, subsequently, between 2010 and 2014, land disputes and inter-ethnic clashes caused thousands of Ghanaians to flee to rural communities in northern Togo, where they have strong cultural and linguistic affinities with the local population (UNHCR, 2018[4])
In 2020, the second largest country of asylum was Italy, with 18% of Ghanaian refugees (approximately 2 500), and Germany, which hosted an additional 5% (600). However, while the number of refugees has remained relatively stable since 1994 (between 14 000 and 18 000), the number of asylum seekers from Ghana grew 10‑fold between 2000 and 2020. As of 2020, there were approximately 10 000 Ghanaian pending asylum applications worldwide. More significantly, Ghanaian individuals seek asylum in a wider variety of countries, with increasing numbers turning to Latin America. In 2020, Brazil was the top destination country for Ghanaian asylum seekers with approximately 2 500 (24% of the total), a trend that gained notoriety in the 2014 World Cup when the Brazilian Government processed 1 000 asylum applications from Ghanaian individuals, a 6‑fold increase from the previous year.
Figure 2.5. Distribution of Ghanaian refugees in main destination countries, 2020
Source: UNHCR, 2020.
International students comprise another specific category of Ghanaian emigrants. In 2019, more than 9 000 students from Ghana were enrolled in a tertiary-level institution abroad, representing roughly 2% of all tertiary-level enrollments in Ghana. Nine in ten were studying in an OECD country (Figure 2.6). The total number of international students from Ghana increased by 21% in six years, from about 7 800 in 2013 to 9 400 in 2019. Among the 15 ECOWAS countries, Ghana is the fourth-largest origin country of international students in the OECD area, after Nigeria, Senegal and Côte d’Ivoire.
Across OECD countries, the United States hosted the largest number of students from Ghana in 2019, accounting for 37% of the total. Two other English-speaking countries, the United Kingdom and Canada, are also significant destinations for Ghanaian students (1 800 and 1 000, respectively). However, while the number of Ghanaian students slightly decreased in the United Kingdom between 2013 and 2019 (‑8%), it almost doubled in Canada during the same period (+87%). Among the top five destinations for Ghanaian international students, Germany registered the largest percentage increase in recent years: from approximately 300 in 2013, it hosted 1 000 students in 2019, a 3‑fold increase.
Figure 2.6. Main destination countries for international students from Ghana, 2013 and 2019
Notes: Enrolled Ghanaian students (who are not citizens of the destination country) in a tertiary education programme.
Source: OECD/Eurostat/UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2021), Education at a Glance Database.
Regional distribution of Ghanaian emigrants in selected destination countries
National data sources make it possible to study the location of Ghanaian emigrants in the three main destination countries and map their regional distribution. In the United States, Ghanaian migrants have settled across the country, but New York accounts for the largest concentration, hosting one in five Ghanaian migrants, followed by the states of Virginia and New Jersey. This geographic concentration is not exclusive to Ghanaian migrants, as most African migrants, more generally, reside in these three states (United States Census Bureau, 2019[5]). As compared to the foreign and native‑born population of the United States, the Ghanaian diaspora is overrepresented in the Northeast region (home to the states of New York and New Jersey), which hosts 40% of the total (Figure 2.7).
In the second-largest country of destination, the United Kingdom, Ghanaian emigrants are mostly located in London (67% of the total), where they are overrepresented compared to the foreign-born (40%) and other migrants from West Africa (61%). Job opportunities in the local economy, in the informal sector, in particular, have been an important pull factor for Ghanaian migrants, coupled with strong social networks that have developed around certain boroughs (Southwark, Lambeth, Newham, Hackney, Haringey, Lewisham, Croydon and Brent) (Vasta, 2010[6]). The second-largest regional concentration is located in South East England, which hosts 10% of Ghanaian migrants, followed by East England, accounting for 7% of the total (Figure 2.8).
In Italy, most Ghanaian migrants live in the northern regions (Figure 2.9). Legislative measures that offered a pathway to legalisation and better employment opportunities drove Ghanaian migrants to northern Italy, even when they first settled in the southern regions. Emilia Romagna hosts the largest concentration of Ghanaian migrants (23% of the total) due to a combination of job opportunities in highly specialised small and medium-sized enterprises of the industrial and manufacturing sectors and a favourable legislative environment (Marabello, 2018[7]). For instance, only Emilia Romagna and Tuscany have modified their regional statuses to allow migrants to participate in local administrative elections.
Figure 2.7. Regional distribution of Ghanaian emigrants in the United States, 2017‑19
Note: Western Africa in ACS comprises Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Cote d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, St. Helena, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. Compared to the ECOWAS group, this category includes two additional countries: St. Helena and Mauritania.
Source: American Community Survey 1‑Year Estimates; pooled data from 2017, 2018, 2019.
Figure 2.8. Regional distribution of Ghanaian emigrants in the United Kingdom, 2011
Note: Central and Western Africa in the UK Census comprise Ghana, Nigeria and “Other” countries.
Source: United Kingdom Census 2011.
Figure 2.9. Regional distribution of Ghanaian emigrants in Italy, 2020
Note: The foreign population is determined by country of citizenship in Italian census data.
Source: Istat, 2020.
The demographic composition of the Ghanaian diaspora
Women comprise 47% of the Ghanaian diaspora in OECD countries
In 2015/16, 47% of Ghanaian migrants living in OECD countries were women. The Ghanaian diaspora shows a very similar composition to the average emigrant population from ECOWAS countries (46% of which is composed of women). Its share of women is only slightly inferior to the foreign-born population’s (51%). Ghana’s is the sixth most feminised diaspora among ECOWAS countries after Cabo Verde, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Côte d’Ivoire and Nigeria (Figure 2.10).
Although certain studies point to an increasing feminisation of the Ghanaian emigrant population – with women moving independently as skilled workers, entrepreneurs and traders – the gender composition of the Ghanaian diaspora in OECD countries has remained practically stable for 15 years. Between 2000/01 and 2015/16, the share of women only increased by 1 percentage point. However, there is evidence that Ghanaian women dominate short distance emigration to neighbouring countries (Anarfi, 2017[8]; UNDESA, 2020[9]). Ghana implemented structural adjustment policies in the 1980s, which increased unemployment and underemployment, incentivising women to emigrate as an alternative livelihood strategy. At the same time, economic opportunities in West Africa and the end of the apartheid in South Africa in the early 1990s propelled female migration within the continent (Wong, 2006[10]). In more recent years, women have increasingly engaged in international migration through specific sectors of occupation. The phenomenon is evident among women who emigrate as nurses and health care professionals to the United Kingdom and as domestic workers to countries in the Middle East (IOM, 2019[11]).
Figure 2.10. Share of women in the emigrant population from Ghana and ECOWAS countries living in OECD countries, 2015/16
Note: Reference population includes all persons.
Source: OECD Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC), 2015/16.
The distribution of women in the Ghanaian diaspora varies significantly by country of destination (Figure 2.12). Women represent 55% of the Ghanaian diaspora in the United Kingdom, the only leading destination country where women outnumber men. However, the phenomenon is not limited to the Ghanaian diaspora as women also represent the majority of the African diaspora in the United Kingdom (OECD/AFD, 2019[12]). In Italy, by contrast, Ghanaian women only account for 37% of the total emigrant population. Evidence suggests that it was not until the mid‑1990s that married women and children began migrating to Italy (Marabello, 2018[7]). In the United States, Germany and Canada, the gender ratio is more balanced (47% of women in the United States and 49% in the latter two countries).
Eight in ten Ghanaian migrants living in OECD countries are of working age
The Ghanaian diaspora living in OECD countries is primarily of working age: 80% of its emigrants were between 25 and 64 years old in 2015/16, similar to that of ECOWAS emigrants, 77% of which belong to the same age group (Figure 2.11). The predominance of working-age individuals in the Ghanaian diaspora is more significant than among the foreign-born and native populations of OECD countries (+11% and +29%, respectively). This positive self-selection among Ghanaian individuals of working age also means that the share of Ghanaian emigrants younger than 15 and above 64 is disproportionately low.
The population younger than 15 accounts for 5% of the Ghanaian diaspora in OECD countries, a similar share than among the foreign-born population (6%) but significantly lower than among the native‑born (19%). Similarly, individuals older than 64 represent 6% of the Ghanaian diaspora, compared to 17 and 15% of native and foreign-born populations, respectively.
Moreover, the age distribution of the Ghanaian emigrant population highly contrasts with the population of Ghana and, again, points to positive self-selection among those in conditions to work: only four out of ten Ghanaians are of working age, compared to eight out of ten emigrants. Similarly, 38% of the Ghanaian population is less than 15 years old, compared to 5% of the population that migrates to an OECD country.
However, the age distribution of the Ghanaian diaspora varies significantly by country of destination (Figure 2.12). The Ghanaian migrant population in the United Kingdom is older than in the rest of the main destination countries: the share of individuals over 64 years of age is 8%, compared to 6% in the United States and Canada and 3% in Germany. In Italy, due to the low number of observations captured in Labour Force Surveys, data suggest that the population of Ghanaian migrants older than 64 is virtually non-existent. Aside from the methodological limitations of survey samples, it must be noted that substantial emigration to the Anglophone countries preceded emigration to Southern Europe, and Italy in particular. Further, surveys among Ghanaian migrants in Italy suggest that most plan to return before pension age and invest in Ghana to support such plans (Akwasi, 2016[13])
Italy and Germany host the largest proportions of Ghanaian migrants of working age (85% of the total migrant population in both countries). Conversely, the United States hosts the largest proportion of children: the share of people less than 15 years old is 8% compared to 3% in the United Kingdom, reflecting the preponderance of permanent family emigration to the United States.
Two countries stand out from the point of view of gender and age distribution: on the one hand, in Italy, 58% of men are of working age, compared to 31% of women, the most significant gender disparity observed in the main destination countries. Conversely, in the United Kingdom, we observe a larger proportion of women of working age (46%) than men (33%).
Figure 2.11. Distribution of Ghanaian emigrants in OECD countries by age groups, 2015/16
Note: Born in Ghana: individuals born in Ghana living in OECD countries in 2015/16. Born in ECOWAS countries: individuals born in an ECOWAS country living in OECD countries in 2015/16. Foreign-born: all immigrants living in OECD countries in 2015/16. Native‑born: individuals born in an OECD country and living in their country of birth in 2015/16. Population in Ghana: individuals living in Ghana in 2015/16.
Source: OECD Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC), 2015/16; Population in Ghana: UNDESA World Population Prospects (2015 estimates).
Figure 2.12. Distribution of Ghanaian emigrants in selected OECD countries by age and sex, 2015/16
Source: OECD Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC), 2015/16.
In OECD countries, six out of ten Ghanaian migrants are settled migrants
Emigrants who arrived in their destination country within the past five years can be considered recent emigrants. Compared to other diasporas in OECD countries, Ghanaian immigration is more recent: 22% of Ghanaian migrants arrived in the OECD area five years ago or less, compared to 16% of the foreign‑born (Figure 2.13). Conversely, 60% of Ghanaian migrants are settled migrants (having arrived in the country more than 10 years ago), compared to 70% of the foreign-born. The settlement patterns of Ghanaian migrants in OECD countries are similar to those of ECOWAS migrants but point to relative recency compared to the overall immigration to OECD countries.
Figure 2.13. Distribution of Ghanaian emigrants in OECD countries by duration of stay, 2015/16
Note: Population 15 years and older.
Source: OECD Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC), 2015/16.
Differences in the distribution of the length of stay of Ghanaian emigrants by destination country make it possible to identify the different migration dynamics at work in OECD countries (Figure 2.14). Among the main destination countries, Canada and the United Kingdom are the host countries with the highest average length of stay: 78 and 68% of Ghanaian migrants, respectively, stayed for more than ten years. In contrast, a third of the Ghanaian migrants in Germany stayed in the country for five years or less. Similarly, more than half (55%) of Ghanaian migrants stayed in Italy for no more than ten years. These trends point to longer-term settlement prospects in the Anglophone countries and more temporary emigration to Italy and Germany.
Figure 2.14. Distribution of Ghanaian emigrants by duration of stay in main OECD destination countries, 2015/16
Note: Population 15 years and older.
Source: OECD Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC), 2015/16.
Education distribution among Ghanaian emigrants across OECD countries
In 2015/16, more than a third of Ghanaian emigrants aged 15 years and older were tertiary-educated
In 2015/16, more than a third (35%) of Ghanaian migrants aged 15 years and older and living in OECD countries had a tertiary education (Figure 2.15). The share of highly educated migrants from Ghana is almost on par with the ECOWAS average (37%) and slightly higher than the foreign-born average (33%).
While the share of low educated migrants from Ghana has remained practically unchanged between 2000 and 2015, the share of medium and highly educated emigrants has evolved in contrary directions, albeit at low rates: in 2015/16, 37% of emigrants had medium educational attainment, a 3% decrease since 2000. Conversely, the share of emigrants with high educational attainment grew by 2% during the same period.
Ghanaian emigrants to OECD countries also hold significantly higher educational credentials than the average Ghanaian population, reflecting a strong positive selection of migrants from developing countries to the OECD area. Further, the share of the Ghanaian population with high educational attainment remained practically stable between 2000 and 2015, increasing only 1 percentage point during this period. Conversely, among the emigrant population, the share of highly educated increased by 2 percentage points, which suggests a widening gap between the origin and emigrant population. Regarding the ECOWAS population, Ghana ranks in the middle in educational attainment: six countries have higher shares of highly educated emigrants, and eight rank below (Figure 2.16).
Figure 2.15. Educational attainment among Ghanaian emigrants in OECD countries, 2000/01 and 2015/16
Note: Population 15 years and older.
Source: OECD Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC), 2015/16; Wittgenstein Centre for Demography and Global Human Capital (2018).
Figure 2.16. Educational attainment among emigrants from Ghana and ECOWAS countries living in OECD countries, 2015/16
Note: Population 15 years and older.
Source: OECD Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC), 2015/16.
Ghanaian emigrants with a high level of education mostly settle in English-speaking countries
Overall, in 2015/16, 35% of Ghanaian migrants aged 15 and older living in OECD countries had tertiary education. There is, however, heterogeneity across destination countries (Figure 2.17). In the top OECD destination country, the United States, almost half of the Ghanaian migrants (45%) have a high level of education. While the United States does not host the largest share of tertiary-educated migrants from Ghana (surpassed by Canada, with 66%), it does present the lowest share of low educated. To a lesser extent, Ghanaian migrants in the United Kingdom – the country with the second largest diaspora – also have high levels of education: the share of tertiary-educated among them is 41%, but the share of low educated is higher than in the United States, at 26%. These two profiles contrast with the third and fourth most important destination countries: in Italy and Germany, most Ghanaian migrants (69 and 51%, respectively) are low educated and only a minority have a tertiary education (4 and 9%, respectively). These differences confirm that highly educated Ghanaians tend to migrate to English-speaking destinations to be able to practice their professions, with a higher representation of lower-educated migrants in countries such as Germany, Italy and the Netherlands (Schans, 2013[14])
Figure 2.17. Educational attainment among Ghanaian emigrants in main OECD destination countries, 2015/16
Note: Population 15 years and older.
Source: OECD Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC), 2015/16.
Ghanaian emigrant women have, on average, a lower educational level than men but the gap between them has narrowed since 2000
In 2015/16, Ghanaian emigrant women to OECD countries had, on average, a lower educational level than their male counterparts, but the gap between them has narrowed significantly since 2000 (Figure 2.18). While the educational attainment of Ghanaian emigrant women improved overall, it decreased for men between 2000 and 2015. For instance, in 2015/16 one‑third of women had tertiary education, 7 percentage points higher than in 2000. Conversely, the share of men with a tertiary education decreased by 1 percentage point in the same period. Further, while the share of low-educated women decreased by 5 percentage points during the same period, it increased by 4 percentage points among men.
Figure 2.18. Level of education among Ghanaian emigrants by sex in OECD countries, 2000/01 and 2015/16
Note: Population 15 years and older.
Source: OECD Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC), 2000/01 and 2015/16.
Box 2.4. The Ghanaian diaspora in African countries
Estimating the size of the Ghanaian diaspora in sub-Saharan Africa is problematic due to data shortcomings. While ECOWAS countries have been collecting statistical data on immigration through the national population and housing censuses, differences in definitions, reference periods, and classification schemes complicate comparisons (Awumbila et al., 2014[15]). Further, census data are comprehensive and generally publicly available but lack timeliness. Among the main African destinations for Ghanaian emigrants, there are census data available for Benin (2013), Burkina Faso (2006), Togo (2010) and South Africa (2011). More recent surveys, which include migration data, are also available for Côte d’Ivoire (2015 Equity and Poverty Household) and South Africa (2016 Community Survey). Nigeria, the top destination country, conducted its last census in 2006 and the foreign component is unavailable.
Albeit the limitations, it is possible to build a socio‑demographic profile of the average Ghanaian migrant in sub-Saharan Africa. In terms of gender composition, women account for most migrant stocks in three of the five countries for which data are available (Benin, Burkina Faso and Togo) (Figure 2.19). Women represent approximately two‑thirds of the Ghanaian emigrant population in neighbouring Togo and Burkina Faso.
As in OECD countries, most of the Ghanaian migrant population in African countries is of working age (15‑64), but the age distribution is more balanced, with comparative higher shares of children and elders, which points to other types of migration patterns aside from labour migration. In terms of educational distribution, over 90% of Ghanaian emigrants are low-educated (Figure 2.20). The only exception to this pattern is South Africa, which attracts a significant share of medium and high-educated migrants from Ghana (45 and 31%, respectively).
Figure 2.19. Distribution of the Ghanaian emigrant population by sex and age in selected African countries, several years
Note: Population 15 years and older. Côte d’Ivoire estimates the migrant population by nationality.
Source: Togo: 2010 General Census of the Population and Habitat via IPUMS; Burkina Faso: 2006 General Population and Housing Census via IPUMS; Benin: 2013 Population and Housing Census via IPUMS; Côte d’Ivoire; 2015 Equity and Poverty Household; South Africa: 2016 Community Survey via IPUMS.
Figure 2.20. Educational distribution of Ghanaian emigrants by sex in selected African countries, several years
Note: Reference population includes persons aged 15 and over. In Côte d’Ivoire, the migrant population is estimated by nationality.
Source: Togo: 2010 General Census of the Population and Habitat via IPUMS; Burkina Faso: 2006 General Population and Housing Census via IPUMS; Benin: 2013 Population and Housing Census; Côte d’Ivoire; 2015 Equity and Poverty Household; South Africa: 2016 Community Survey via IPUMS.
Acquisition of nationality among Ghanaian emigrants in OECD countries
Access to the host-country nationality is an important element of integration policy, as it provides immigrants with the full range of rights and duties that host-country nationals enjoy (OECD, 2010[16]). Ghana recognised dual citizenship in the mid‑1990s, though implementation did not materialise until 2002, with the passing of the Dual Citizenship Act (Whitaker, 2011[17]). In 1995, approximately 200 Ghanaian migrants acquired the citizenship of their OECD host country. By 2005, that number had increased by 45% to almost 10 000. Overall, the number of Ghanaian emigrants that acquired the citizenship of an OECD country increased significantly since 1995: the numbers saw a 68‑fold increase by 2019, the latest data available.
Among the leading destination countries – the United States, United Kingdom, Italy, Germany and Canada – the number of Ghanaian migrants that acquired the citizenship of their host country increased by 78%, from less than 7 000 in 2000 to 12 500 in 2019 (Figure 2.21). However, there are important differences across destinations: between 2000 and 2019 the number of Ghanaian migrants that acquired the citizenship of the United States, Italy and Germany increased, but decreased in Canada and the United Kingdom during the same period.
The number of Ghanaian migrants that acquired American citizenship has grown constantly and more than tripled (+238%) between 2000 and 2019 (Figure 2.21). In 2015, the naturalisation rate of 55% among Ghanaian migrants was only 1 percentage point higher than among the foreign-born population (Figure 2.22). Conversely, the number of Ghanaian migrants acquiring British citizenship decreased by 7% between 2000 and 2019. Yet, in 2015, the naturalisation rate among Ghanaian migrants (54%) was higher than among the foreign-born population (39%). The number of Ghanaian migrants that acquired Italian citizenship saw a 7‑fold increase since 2006 (the earliest data available). However, the naturalisation rate for Ghanaian migrants in 2015 was still low, at 10%, and significantly below the naturalisation rate for the foreign-born population (27%). The number of Ghanaians who acquired German citizenship increased by 13% but started at a much lower base (approximately 700). Similar to the case of Italy, the naturalisation rate among Ghanaian migrants in Germany is low (25%) and below the rate observed for the foreign-born population (40%).
Figure 2.21. Number of Ghanaian emigrants that acquired the nationality of their host country, OECD selected countries, 1995‑2019
Source: OECD International Migration Database.
Figure 2.22. Rate of nationality acquisition among emigrants from Ghana living in OECD countries, 2015/16
Source: OECD Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC), 2015/16.
48% of Ghanaian emigrants held the citizenship of their OECD host country in 2015/16
According to the most recent data available, 48% of Ghanaian emigrants held the citizenship of their OECD host country (Figure 2.24). This figure is only 1 percentage point higher than for ECOWAS emigrants and 3 percentage points lower than the foreign-born population in OECD countries. Among the ECOWAS group, Ghana is the sixth country with the highest rate of naturalisations.
Figure 2.23. Rate of nationality acquisition among emigrants from the ECOWAS area living in OECD countries, 2015/16
Note: Percentage of ECOWAS migrants holding the citizenship of the OECD country where they reside. The reference population includes all persons.
Source: OECD Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC), 2015/16.
Emigration rate
Ghana has the sixth-highest emigration rate among ECOWAS countries
Emigration rates are defined as the ratio between the number of emigrants from a specific country living in OECD countries and the total sum of the resident population of this country and emigrants living in OECD countries. In 2015/16, Ghana had the sixth-highest emigration rate to OECD countries among the ECOWAS countries (Figure 2.24), but significantly lower than Cape Verde, for example, which has one of the highest emigration rates worldwide (26.1%). Ghana also has the sixth-highest emigration rate of women among ECOWAS countries (2.1%).
Across most developing and emerging countries, the emigration rates of the highly educated are almost always higher than the total emigration rates. Highly educated individuals are less financially constrained to engage in cross-country migration, and OECD countries have also adopted policies that tend to be very selective and make it very difficult for low-educated people to immigrate (d’Aiglepierre et al., 2020[18]). In 2015/16, Ghana had an emigration rate to OECD countries of 14% among its highly educated population, the seventh-highest among the 15 ECOWAS countries. The overall emigration rate of highly educated individuals to OECD countries was 16% in the same year (d’Aiglepierre et al., 2020[18]).
Figure 2.24. Emigration rates of ECOWAS countries to OECD countries, 2015/16
Note: Emigration rates are defined as the ratio between the number of emigrants from a specific country living in OECD countries and the total sum of the resident population of this country and emigrants living in OECD countries.
Source: d’Aiglepierre et al. (2020[18]), “A global profile of emigrants to OECD countries: Younger and more skilled migrants from more diverse countries”, https://doi.org/10.1787/0cb305d3-en.
Conclusion
This chapter analysed the number of Ghanaian emigrants in main OECD destination countries, and the overall evolution of the emigrant population since 2000. Approximately half of the Ghanaian diaspora resides in the OECD area and is highly concentrated in five countries, of which two are Anglophone countries. While the stocks in OECD countries are mainly composed of men, available census data suggest that women compose most of the stocks in neighbouring countries. The educational level ad age distribution of the Ghanaian emigrant population in the OECD area shows positive self-selection among the tertiary-educated and those of working age.
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