Economic Policy Reforms 2023

Metadata Annex

Product and labour markets functioning

Labour productivity (GDP per employee, USD, 2022)

Gross Domestic product at constant 2015 prices and PPPs per employee.

The last available year is 2021 for India.

Source: OECD National Accounts, Productivity and Economic Outlook Databases.

Unemployment rate (%, 2022)

The unemployed are people of working age who are without work, are available for work, and have taken specific steps to find work. This indicator is measured in numbers of unemployed people as a percentage of the labour force and is seasonally adjusted. The labour force is defined as the total number of unemployed people plus those in employment. Data are based on labour force surveys (LFS).

The last available year is 2021 for Argentina; 2019 for Indonesia.

Source: OECD Labour Force Statistics Database and China National Bureau of Statistics.

Product Market Regulation: Economy-wide (From least to most restrictive, Index of 0-6, 2018)

The economy wide PMR indicators measure the regulatory barriers to firm entry and competition in a broad range of key policy areas, ranging from licensing and public procurement to governance of SOEs, price controls, evaluation of new and existing regulations, and foreign trade.

The last available year is 2020 for China, Indonesia and Peru; 2019 for Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania and the United States.

Source: OECD, Product Market Regulation 2018 Database, https://www.oecd.org/economy/reform/indicators-of-product-market-regulation/

Active labour market policies expenditure per unemployed (% of GDP per capita, 2020 or latest available)

The last available year is 2019 for Bulgaria, Ireland, Israel, Japan, Korea, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland and the Slovak Republic; 2018 for Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States; 2011 for the United Kingdom.

Source: OECD, Labour Market Policies and Economic Outlook Databases; Eurostat.

Rule of Law (From least to most confidence, score from -2.5 to 2.5, 2021)

Rule of Law captures perceptions of the extent to which agents have confidence in and abide by the rules of society, and in particular the quality of contract enforcement, property rights, the police, and the courts, as well as the likelihood of crime and violence. Estimate gives the country's score on the aggregate indicator, in units of a standard normal distribution, i.e., ranging from approximately -2.5 to 2.5.

Source: World Bank, Worldwide Governance Indicators.

Digital transition

Households with broadband internet access at home (%, 2021 or latest available)

The last available year is 2022 for Korea; 2020 for Canada, Colombia and Japan; 2019 for the United Kingdom; 2018 for Israel; 2017 for Australia and Chile.

Source: OECD Information and Communication Technology Database and OECD Regions and Cities Database.

Businesses with a website or home page (%, 2021 or latest available)

All businesses (10 persons employed or more).

The last available year is 2022 for New Zealand; 2020 for Belgium, Colombia, Denmark, Estonia, the United Kingdom, Israel and Japan; 2019 for Australia; 2018 for Iceland.

Source: OECD Information and Communication Technology Database.

Fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants (2021 or latest available)

Fixed broadband subscriptions refer to fixed subscriptions to high-speed access to the public Internet (a TCP/IP connection), at downstream speeds equal to, or greater than, 256 kbit/s. This includes cable modem, DSL, fibre-to-the-home/building, other fixed (wired)-broadband subscriptions, satellite broadband and terrestrial fixed wireless broadband. This total is measured irrespective of the method of payment. It excludes subscriptions that have access to data communications (including the Internet) via mobile-cellular networks. It should include fixed WiMAX and any other fixed wireless technologies. It includes both residential subscriptions and subscriptions for organisations.

Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators.

Business R&D expenditure in information industries (% of GDP, 2019 or latest available)

Business enterprise expenditure in R&D (BERD) in information industries (ISIC 26+58-63), irrespective of funding source. The ICT manufacturing and services sectors, along with the content and media sector, are collectively known as the “information industries”. Information industries play a key role in driving digital transformation forward. Ever-faster connectivity, deployment of the Internet of Things, and increasing data flows all rely on continuous investments in hardware, software, and communications infrastructures. Meanwhile, businesses adoption of digital tools and new business models enabled by digital technologies – such as cloud computing – are changing the composition and nature of the information industries.

The last available year is 2020 for China, the Czech Republic, Iceland, Japan, Korea, New Zealand and the Slovak Republic; 2018 for Chile; 2017 for France and the Netherlands; 2011 for Luxembourg.

Source: OECD Going Digital Toolkit, https://goingdigital.oecd.org/indicator/31.

OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (From least to most restrictive, Index of 0-1, 2022)

The OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (DSTRI) measures cross-cutting barriers that inhibit or completely prohibit firms’ ability to supply services using electronic networks, regardless of the sector in which they operate. It includes five measures: 1) infrastructure and connectivity, 2) electronic transactions, 3) e-payment systems, 4) intellectual property rights and 5) other barriers to trade in digitally enabled services. The index takes values between 0 and 1, where 0 indicates an open regulatory environment for digitally enabled trade and 1 indicates a completely closed regime.

Source: OECD Industry and Services Database.

Performance of digital public services, eGovernment Benchmark (score of 0-100, 2022)

The Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) is a composite index that summarises relevant indicators on Europe’s digital performance and tracks the evolution of EU Member States in digital competitiveness. The DESI Index addresses five main areas: connectivity, human capital, use of internet, integration of digital technology and digital public services. The eGovernment Benchmark compares how governments across Europe deliver digital public services. Four dimensions are used to evaluate online public services (User Centricity, Transparency, Key Enablers and Cross-Border Services).

Source: European Commission: https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/egovernment-benchmark-2022.

Inclusiveness, social protection, and ageing

Mean poverty gap after taxes and transfers (line at 60% of median disposable income, 2021 or latest available)

The poverty gap is the ratio by which the mean income of the poor falls below the poverty line. The poverty line is defined as 60% the median household income of the total population.

The last available year is 2021 for Costa Rica, Finland, Latvia, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United States; 2020 for Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Korea, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Spain and the United Kingdom; 2019 for Denmark, France, Germany, Switzerland, Türkiye and the Slovak Republic; 2018 for Japan; 2017 for Chile, Iceland and South Africa.

Source: OECD, Income Distribution Database.

Poverty gap at $3.65 a day (%, 2021 or latest available)

Poverty gap is the mean shortfall in income or consumption from the poverty line $3.65 a day (2017 PPP, counting the nonpoor as having zero shortfall), expressed as a percentage of the poverty line. This measure reflects the depth of poverty as well as its incidence.

The last available year is 2022 for Indonesia; 2019 for China and India.

Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators.

Impact of socio-economic background in PISA reading score (%, 2018)

Score-point difference in reading performance associated with a one-unit increase in PISA index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS). The ESCS is a composite measure combining into a single score the financial, social, cultural and human-capital resources available to students. The index is derived from equally weighted components such as students’ parents’ education and occupations, and an index summarising a number of home possessions considered as proxies for material wealth or cultural capital, such as possession of a car, the existence of a quiet room to work, access to the Internet, the number of books and other educational resources available in the home.

Source: OECD PISA Database, https://www.oecd.org/pisa/data/

Strength of redistribution (differences in Gini coefficients between market and disposable income relative to coefficients on disposable income, %, 2021 or latest available)

The Gini coefficient ranges from 0 in the case of “perfect equality” (each person receives the same income) and 100 in the case of “perfect inequality” (all income goes to the person with the highest income). Gini coefficients at disposable (equivalised household) incomes are post-taxes and social transfers and adjusted for differences in the needs of households of different sizes with an equivalence scale that divides household income by the square root of household size.

The last available year is 2021 for Costa Rica, Finland, Latvia, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United States; 2020 for Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Korea, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Spain and the United Kingdom; 2019 for Denmark, France, Germany, Switzerland, Türkiye and the Slovak Republic; 2018 for Japan; 2017 for Chile, Iceland and South Africa.

Source: OECD Income Distribution Database.

Income levels provided by cash minimum-income benefits (% of median disposable income, 2022 or latest available)

This indicator measures the income of selected jobless families that claim Guaranteed Minimum Income (GMI) benefits. When the country's poverty line is defined as a fixed percentage of the median disposable income, the normalization of GMI amounts in terms of the median disposable income allows measuring the gap between benefit entitlements and the poverty line. For instance, if the poverty threshold is 50% of the median disposable income, a value of the indicator of 30% means that benefit entitlements are 20 percentage points below the poverty line.

The last available year is 2021 for Canada and Israel; 2016 for Chile.

Source: OECD Social protection and Well-being Database.

Share of working-age population (15-64) in total (%, 2022)

The last available year is 2021 for China.

Source: OECD Labour Force Statistics Database and China National Bureau of Statistics.

Climate transition

Share of renewables in the energy mix (%, average over 2019-21 or latest available)

Renewable energy is defined as the contribution of renewables to total primary energy supply (TPES). Renewables include the primary energy equivalent of hydro (excluding pumped storage), geothermal, solar, wind, tide, and wave sources. Energy derived from solid biofuels, bio gasoline, biodiesels, other liquid biofuels, biogases, and the renewable fraction of municipal waste are also included.

Average over the period 2018-20 for Bulgaria, China, Croatia, Indonesia, India, Peru, Romania and South Africa.

Source: OECD Environment Database.

Share of population exposed to more than 10 µg/m³ of PM2.5 (%, average over 2017-19 or latest available)

Fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) is the air pollutant that poses the greatest risk to health globally, affecting more people than any other pollutant. Chronic exposure to PM2.5 considerably increases the risk of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Population exposure to more than 10 Micrograms per cubic metre and are expressed as annual averages.

Source: OECD Environment Database.

Carbon pricing score (%, at EUR 30 per tonne CO2, 2018)

The carbon pricing score (1- carbon pricing gap) shows how close countries are to pricing carbon in line with carbon costs. Including emissions from the combustion of biomass.

Source: OECD Effective Carbon Rates 2021 Database.

Environmentally related government R&D budget (% of total government R&D, 2021 or latest available)

Environmentally related taxes are an important instrument for governments to shape relative prices of goods and services and to construct environmentally related tax revenues in several domains (energy products, motor vehicles and transport services, emissions to air and water, ozone depleting substances, certain non-point sources of water pollution, waste management and noise, management of water, land, soil, forests, biodiversity, wildlife and fish stocks).

The last available year is 2020 for Colombia, Israel, Korea and the United Kingdom; 2019 for Chile and Iceland; 2017 for New Zealand; 2016 for Canada; 2012 for Argentina.

Source: OECD Green Growth Database.

Environmentally related tax revenue (% of GDP, 2019 or latest available)

R&D expenditure refers to Gross domestic Expenditure on Research and Development (GERD) measured as total intramural (= business enterprise + government + higher education + private non-profit) R&D expenditure in various socio-economic objectives. This indicator is based on the socio-economic objective “environment” which includes research directed at the control of pollution and on developing monitoring facilities to measure, eliminate and prevent pollution.

The last available year is 2019 for Costa Rica and South Africa; 2018 for India.

Source: OECD Green Growth Database.

Overall performance

Economy

Gross Domestic product (thousands USD per capita, 2022 or latest available)

Gross Domestic product at constant 2015 prices and PPPs per capita.

The last available year is 2021 for Argentina, China, Indonesia and Peru; 2020 for Brazil.

Source: OECD calculations based on OECD Economic Outlook Database.

Household gross adjusted disposable income (thousands USD per capita, 2022 or latest available)

The last available year is 2021 for Australia, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, Spain, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Latvia, Mexico, the Netherlands, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia and the United States; 2020 for Colombia, Costa Rica, Israel, Japan, Korea and New Zealand; 2019 for Peru; 2017 for Türkiye.

Source: OECD calculations based on OECD Economic Outlook Database; Statistik Iceland; Israel Central Bureau of Statistics.

Inequality and poverty

Gini coefficient after taxes and transfers (Index of 0-100, 2021 or latest available)

The last available year is 2022 for Indonesia; 2021 for Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Finland, Latvia, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, the United States and Peru; 2020 for Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, China, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, India, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Korea, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Spain and the United Kingdom; 2019 for Denmark, France, Germany, Switzerland, Türkiye and the Slovak Republic; 2018 for Japan; 2017 for Chile, Iceland and South Africa.

Source: OECD Income Distribution Database and World Bank, World Development Indicators.

Poverty rate, line at 60% of median disposable income (%, 2021 or latest available)

The last available year is 2021 for Costa Rica, Finland, Latvia, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United States; 2020 for Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Korea, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Spain and the United Kingdom; 2019 for Denmark, France, Germany, Switzerland, Türkiye and the Slovak Republic; 2018 for Japan; 2017 for Chile, Iceland and South Africa.

Source: OECD Income Distribution Database.

Poverty headcount ratio at $3.65 a day (%, 2021 or latest available)

The last available year is 2022 for Indonesia; 2019 for China and India.

Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators.

Environment and climate

Total greenhouse gas emissions excluding land use, land-use change and forestry per unit of GDP (2021 or latest available)

Kilograms of CO₂ equivalent per USD.

The last available year is 2019 for Israel, Korea and Mexico; 2018 for Chile and Colombia; 2017 for Costa Rica; 2016 for Brazil, India, Indonesia and Peru; 2014 for Argentina and China.

Source: OECD Environment Database.

Welfare cost of premature deaths due to exposure to ambient particulate matter (% GDP equivalent, 2019)

Source: OECD Environment Database.