Education Policy Outlook 2023

Empowering All Learners to Go Green

Report

Education Policy Outlook

20 November 2023

3. Providing all learners with experiences to help them shape the green economy

Abstract

The increasing frequency of extreme weather events and the imminent prospect that the planet will cross climate tipping points in the coming years mean the transition towards a low-carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive economy has become an immediate priority for 2024 rather than a distant goal. The OECD Declaration on Building Equitable Societies Through Education (2023) outlines countries’ commitment to ensuring that education and training equips people of all ages and backgrounds with the skills they need to thrive through this transition. To achieve this vision, policymakers must go beyond simply embedding green skills in the curriculum and updating the training offer. This chapter therefore explores how policymakers can provide all learners with active learning experiences that empower them to shape the green economy, drawing on an analysis of recent data and promising or impactful policy efforts. This analysis leads to policy lessons to guide policymakers efforts in 2024 and the mid-to-long-term.

In Brief

Providing all learners with experiences to help them shape the green economy

In 2024, countries and economies are likely to experience an increasing frequency of extreme weather events, with the imminent prospect that the planet will cross climate tipping points in the coming years. The transition towards a low-carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive (or ‘green’) economy must become an immediate priority for 2024 rather than a distant goal. Governments have invested significantly in the green economy as part of COVID-19 recovery measures, but these investments will be wasted unless matched by measures to address skills deficits and ensure everyone can benefit.

To meet this challenge, policy makers must go beyond simply embedding ‘green’ content in the curriculum; they must work to provide all learners with opportunities to solve real-world problems, to work collaboratively, and draw on knowledge from different disciplines. However, the Education Policy Outlook National Survey for Comparative Policy Analysis 2023: Empowering All Learners to go Green indicates that policy makers are more likely to prioritise adapting the curriculum and training offer than providing learners with practical experiences that help them apply and further develop key knowledge, skills and attributes for the green economy. While 71% of participating education ministries indicated that the former was a priority to a great extent, only 46% indicated the latter (see Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1. Few education systems prioritise providing learners with practical experiences for the transition to greener and fairer societies compared to adapting the curriculum

This chapter explores recent relevant policy efforts taking place across participating education systems, predominantly since 2020, to provide learners with experiences that will help them shape the green economy.

For learners: Education systems are providing active learning experiences linked to the real-world to foster transversal competencies. This includes experiences outside of traditional classroom settings, such as the workplace, outdoors, or online. As well as addressing general skills shortages, several education systems have implemented measures to encourage underrepresented groups (e.g. girls and women, disadvantaged students, minorities) to enter key sectors such as science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). These often combine practical experiences with targeted mentoring or career guidance.
For educators and institutions: Recent professional learning initiatives aim to place teachers in the driving seat, and to give them opportunities to implement projects and test new approaches, often in collaboration with colleagues in other institutions or partners outside of the formal education sector. The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the trend towards more flexible forms of professional learning (e.g. online, blended). Governments are increasingly seeking to harness the innovative capacity of educational institutions to achieve short- and longer-term environmental goals. This includes measures to foster collaboration between higher education institutions and business or industry partners to address skills bottlenecks and stimulate research and innovation.

Recent data and analysis from these and other policy experiences offer some emerging lessons to help policy makers provide all learners with experiences to help them shape the economy in 2024. For learners, these lessons call on policymakers to monitor the longer-term impact of green skills initiatives to better understand what works, to use innovative methods and digital technologies to provide experiences for hard-to-reach populations, and to strengthen coordination and anticipation mechanisms to ensure the relevance of skills. For educators and institutions, the lessons encourage policymakers to value the role of parents of younger learners to challenge stereotypes and misconceptions which could hinder environmental values and behaviours to take hold, and to strengthen the role of leaders of education institutions to promote environments favourable to green innovation.

Infographic 3.1. Providing all learners with experiences to help them shape the green economy

Introduction

In many respects, the green transition is already happening, although it risks being slowed down by skills bottlenecks. The COVID-19 pandemic has given a boost to the green economy, with governments investing significantly in key sectors as part of recovery measures (OECD, 2023[2]). This spending is likely to be matched by increasing investment in climate change adaptation as the extreme weather events experienced by populations across the world in 2023 become more frequent and more catastrophic (OECD, 2023[3]). Public and private investment in the green economy is already having an impact on the demand for labour and skills, with demand for green jobs growing faster than the demand for other jobs since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. This demand is likely to continue to grow in the coming years, exacerbating the skills shortages many countries are already experiencing in key sectors (OECD, 2023[2]).

Despite the growth in the overall demand for green jobs, however, the green transition risks exacerbating existing inequalities, bringing additional challenges to those who were hardest hit by recent shocks. As well as creating new employment opportunities, environmental policies will also lead to job losses in the short-term, particularly for people working in carbon-intensive sectors. Since green jobs tend to require a higher skill level and be concentrated in capital regions, recent investments in green sectors will not automatically benefit the most vulnerable workers (OECD, 2023[2]; McGrath and Powell, 2016[4]; OECD/Cedefop, 2015[5]; Ranworth, Wykes and Bass, 2014[6]). Policymakers must act now to avoid the risk that increased economic hardship undermines political support for environmental policies in the long-term (OECD, 2023[3]; Asai, Borgonovi and Wildi, 2022[7]).

In the Declaration on Building Equitable Societies Through Education, adopted on 8 December 2022, ministers and representatives of OECD member and partner countries outlined the vital role that education and training will play in ensuring individuals and societies thrive through this transition. The Declaration outlines countries’ commitment ‘to helping learners build skills for a digital, green, inclusive and democratic world’ (OECD, 2022[8]). To achieve this vision, policy makers must go beyond simply embedding the skills for the green economy in the curriculum and updating the training offer. Rather, they must work to provide all learners with the transformative experiences that will empower them to shape the green economy.

Data from the EPO Survey 2023 indicates that preparing learners for the green transition is a priority for education systems that could take further traction. Some 83% of participating education systems reported that providing learners with practical experiences that help them apply and further develop key knowledge, skills and attributes for the green economy was a priority to at least a moderate extent for the next five years (see Figure 3.2).

A significantly larger share (86%) of participating education systems reported that this was a priority for primary-upper secondary education compared to other education levels, suggesting school education is often the focus of efforts in these areas. Conversely, only 47% of participating education systems indicated that this was a priority for adult education. This finding is somewhat surprising given the vital role adult learning will have in addressing current skills shortages among the active population (OECD, 2023[2]). A smaller share of participating education systems (63%) reported that targeting resources and supports to help vulnerable learners develop key knowledge, skills and attributes for the transition to a green and fair society was a priority to a ‘great’ or ‘moderate’ extent, although they were also more likely to see this as a priority for primary to upper-secondary education compared to other education levels.

However, data collected by the EPO Survey 2023 also suggests that education ministries were more likely to prioritise adapting the curriculum and training offer than providing practical experiences. While some 71% of participating education systems indicated that the former was a priority to a great extent, only 46% indicated the latter was a priority (see Chapter 1). Ensuring that everyone can play an active role in shaping the green transition involves more than simply embedding more ‘green’ content in the curriculum or creating new ‘green’ courses. To empower all learners to manage the complexity and uncertainty of the climate crisis and necessary changes in the world of work, education must provide them with opportunities to solve real-world problems, to work collaboratively, and to draw on knowledge from different disciplines (Mulà et al., 2017[9]; LaForce et al., 2016[10]; Goos et al., 2020[11]; Lozano et al., 2019[12]).

Figure 3.2. Empowering all learners to shape the green economy is a priority for education systems, notably within school education

This chapter therefore explores how policy makers can provide all learners with experiences that empower them to shape the green economy through policy efforts aimed at:

Strengthening transversal competencies through active learning experiences (e.g. creativity, critical thinking, responsibility). This involves moving beyond curriculum reform and targeting resources and supports to the most vulnerable populations to ensure a just transition.

Promoting a culture of learning and collaboration in education institutions and nurturing external partnerships to strengthen teachers’ use of active pedagogies and technical knowledge and to draw on resources from beyond the institution to provide active learning experiences.

For each of these areas, this chapter analyses relevant policy initiatives, principally across OECD education systems. This analysis leads to some policy lessons to guide policymakers short-term efforts in 2024, as well as medium-term efforts to advance the agenda set out in the Declaration on Building Equitable Societies Through Education. Lessons are then synthesised into key policy pointers for the longer-term.

Strengthening transversal competencies and targeting support can empower learners to shape the green transition

Moving forward to 2024, governments must ensure that recent investments in the green economy are matched by measures to ensure that individuals of all ages and backgrounds acquire the skills to benefit from the opportunities it offers. In many respects, these skills do not differ greatly from the skills people need to thrive in the ‘traditional’ economy and promoting them will help learners thrive in all aspects of their lives. Recent empirical analysis by the OECD suggests that the skills categories that are likely to grow the most in demand by 2030 as European Union countries implement policy targets aimed at reducing greenhouse emissions include interacting with computers, creative thinking, analysing data and information, and communicating with people outside an organisation (Borgonovi et al., 2023[13]). Moreover, employers in previous studies have identified a lack of generic skills (e.g. literacy, numeracy, collaboration, communication, problem solving) as a key barrier to the green transition, suggesting these skills will continue to be important as economies transform (Miranda and Larcombe, 2012[14]). Previous analysis by the Education Policy Outlook points to a need to foster learners’ agency and co-agency, and to promote transformative competencies—or the skills learners will need to transform society and build a better future—to empower them to respond to global challenges and adapt positively to uncertainty throughout their lifetime (OECD, 2021[15]; OECD, 2019[16]). This includes competencies such as critical thinking, a growth mindset, creativity, open-mindedness, and responsibility, all of which will be important for the green transition (see Box 3.1).

At the same time, learners may need to acquire domain-specific or technical skills to participate fully in the low-carbon economy. Emerging evidence suggests that the green transition is associated with increased demand for skills in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) and in fields such as manufacturing and construction (OECD, 2023[2]). If governments are to achieve the ambitious targets set out in their ‘green’ recovery strategies, they will need to address longstanding skills shortages in critical sectors and to make careers in them more attractive (OECD, 2023[2]).

An additional challenge for 2024 and the next few years is that some individuals or groups are better placed to benefit from the green transition than others. Recent OECD analysis points to significant variation in the share of green-task jobs—defined as jobs involving at least 10% of tasks that support environmental goals—between different regions within countries. On average across OECD countries with available data, the difference in the share of green jobs between the top and bottom regions is 7 percentage points, with capital regions often having the highest share (see Figure 3.3).

The same analysis suggests that it is mainly workers with higher levels of education that have benefitted from the expansion of green job opportunities. Those with lower educational attainment are more likely to work in polluting jobs and are at a greater risk of displacement due to the green transition (OECD, 2023[2]; McGrath and Powell, 2016[4]; OECD/Cedefop, 2015[5]; Ranworth, Wykes and Bass, 2014[6]).

Short-term measures to support those at risk of being left behind in the green transition should be accompanied by efforts to increase diversity in critical sectors. Cultural stereotypes and a lack of role models can discourage some groups from entering fields such as science, engineering, or construction, even when they have already demonstrated their potential to succeed in their educational pathways (e.g. girls and women, disadvantaged students, ethnic minorities).

In the same way, a key message that emerges from the research on STEM and education for sustainable development for the follow up to the 2022 Declaration is that how learners learn may be more important than what they learn. This implies that policy makers need to move beyond introducing more ‘green’ content into the curriculum and promote active pedagogies that support learner engagement and develop practical competence. Teaching should provide opportunities for inquiry, critical thinking, and creativity and incorporate approaches such as project and problem-based learning. Interdisciplinary approaches help learners apply knowledge from different fields to real-world problems (Mulà et al., 2017[9]; LaForce et al., 2016[10]). Creativity and problem solving often require strong disciplinary knowledge, however, and this knowledge may be lacking in fields such as engineering and technology, which do not feature widely in compulsory education curricula (Harrison and Royal, 2011[17]; LaForce et al., 2016[10]; Marginson et al., 2013[18]). As such, education and training must promote domain-specific knowledge and skills alongside the transversal competencies that transcend individual domains, being mindful about how these knowledge and skills can support learners for the transition to greener and fairer societies on the ground (see Box 3.1).

Policy makers working on green skills need to keep in mind that while pedagogy is important, the classroom is not the only place where learners can develop these competencies. Studies have shown that extracurricular activities and out-of-school learning experiences can also stimulate young people’s interest in environmental and scientific fields, notably among underrepresented groups (Bowser and Cid, 2021[19]; DeFelice et al., 2014[20]). Successful interventions of this kind often incorporate careers information and guidance activities, or connect formal learning to the world of work (OECD, 2022[21]; LaForce et al., 2016[10]).

Figure 3.3. Green jobs are distributed unevenly between regions in OECD countries

Box 3.1. Transversal competencies are key for sustainable development

The OECD Framework for Responsiveness and Resilience in Education Policy, calls on policy makers to foster learners’ agency and co-agency and support the development of transformative competencies to help them manage change and disruption (OECD, 2021[15]). Following the definition established by the OECD Learning Compass 2030, the Framework understands transformative competencies as ‘the types of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values students need to transform society and shape the future for better lives’ (OECD, 2019[16]). This includes competencies such as critical thinking, a growth mindset, creativity, open-mindedness, and responsibility. The evidence suggests that these play a vital role in helping learners thrive through and actively shape the green transition.

While recognising the importance of specialised knowledge and skills, the broader specific literature on education for sustainable development (ESD) and the green economy also points to a range of competencies that transcend individual domains to help people shape green economies along with the needed societal transformations. For example:

Equipping people for a complex and uncertain world as part of ESD: Mulà et al. (2017[9]) argue that education needs to go beyond ‘teaching about’ sustainable development and passing on expert knowledge in relevant fields and to ‘equip people to respond to the complexities and uncertainties of the future’. The broader ESD literature suggests that this involves promoting non-cognitive skills, values and attitudes such as collaboration, empathy, and responsibility as well as more complex non-cognitive skills such as systems thinking, critical thinking, and anticipatory thinking (Lozano et al., 2019[12]; Wiek, Withycombe and Redman, 2011[22]; Rieckmann, 2012[23]; Lambrechts et al., 2013[24]). Several of these competences feature in the European sustainability competence framework (e.g. systems thinking, critical thinking, individual initiative) and in the key competencies for ESD identified by UNESCO (e.g. anticipatory competency, collaboration competency) (European Commission, 2022[25]; Rieckmann, 2018[26]).
Equipping people with skills for a green economy: With regards to the green economy specifically, the Inter-Agency Working Group on Work-Based learning makes a useful distinction between two sets of skills that people will need ‘to live, work and act in resource efficient and sustainable economies and societies’. This working group defines technical skills as those needed ‘to adapt or implement standards, processes, services, and products or technologies to protect ecosystems and biodiversity, and to reduce energy, materials and water consumption’. While these skills may relate to a specific occupation, they may also be relevant across employment sectors. In the same way, their definition of transversal skills (‘sustainability competencies’, ‘core skills’ or ‘life skills’) relates to ‘sustainable thinking and acting’ and skills that are relevant to all occupations and sectors as well as life outside of work (Inter-Agency Group on Work-based Learning, 2022[27]).

Building on the Framework and relevant literature, this report explores how education and training can nurture these and other transversal competencies (including transformative competencies, technical skills or transversal skills) that people will need to build a more sustainable future.

Sources: OECD (2021[15]), Education Policy Outlook 2021: Shaping Responsive and Resilient Education in a Changing World, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/75e40a16-en

Selected recent policy efforts

In their efforts to increase the supply of skills for the green economy in the short- and long-term, several education systems are moving beyond changes to the written curriculum or the training offer to promote transversal competencies through active learning experiences. Many of these efforts target vulnerable or underrepresented groups to ensure the green transition works for everyone. Among the lessons learned is the value of digital resources in helping deliver enrichment and career activities related to green jobs, the importance of coordination and anticipation mechanisms to prevent skills bottlenecks related to the green transition, and the need to monitor green skills interventions over a longer time span.

Promoting transversal competencies through active learning experiences

An increasing number of countries have introduced education and training measures to support their net zero targets or green recovery strategies that are tied to them, notably in vocational education and training (VET) and adult learning. Several recent strategies for younger learners highlight the role of STEM competencies in the green transition. These policies share a focus on promoting transversal competencies alongside domain-specific knowledge and skills by providing learners with active learning experiences. This includes experiences outside of traditional classroom settings, with learning taking place in the workplace, outdoors, or online to give learners greater flexibility.

Transversal competencies to address skills gaps

In England (United Kingdom), for example, the sustainability and climate change strategy for education and children’s services (2022) contains several measures that support the UK-wide Net Zero Strategy (2021) (Department for Education of England, 2022[28]; Government of the United Kingdom, 2021[29]). This includes expanding the Skills Bootcamps initiative and prioritising key green sectors in the offer of courses. Skills Bootcamps offer free, flexible upskilling and reskilling opportunities to adults. The second wave of the initiative (2021) already included Skills Bootcamps in green skills as well as fields such as engineering, and digital, while the third wave (2022) will prioritise areas such as zero emission vehicles, carbon capture, nature restoration, and waste management (Department for Education of England, 2022[28]). England (United Kingdom) has also convened a Green Apprenticeships Advisory Panel to work with employers on aligning existing apprenticeships with net zero objectives and to investigate areas where new apprenticeship standards could be developed, such as in argi-tech and renewable energy (Institute for Apprenticeships and Technical Education, n.d.[30]).

Although the primary aim of the Skills Bootcamps is to help adults build sector-specific skills, the initiative also helps them develop transversal competencies for the workplace through employability and soft skills training. Early results from an ongoing process evaluation (2023) suggest that soft skills and employability sessions were most effective when they were sensitive to participants’ previous employment experience, involved personalised feedback and support with job applications and CVs, and provided opportunities for them to reflect on their own employability. Another key finding was that the flexible training offer was a factor that attracted participants to Skills Bootcamps. This was especially true for those who were employed, self-employed, or had caring responsibilities. Many providers used online software or adopted a part-time model to increase the flexibility of their programmes. Participants also appreciated opportunities to embed their learning through applied projects and industry-relevant scenarios, since this helped them visualise their pathway to employment (CFE Research, 2023[31]). This underlines the value connecting learning experiences to real-world problems and the working world.

Recent efforts to align a more flexible vocational education offer with the needs of the green economy in Finland also involve practical experiences linked to the world of work. As part of the Development Programme for Sustainable Development and Green Transition in VET (2021), the National Agency for Education is funding 10 collaborative projects involving some 75 VET providers to support the development of the skills for the green transition, but also the sustainable operation of vocational institutions (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2021[32]). Projects will run until December 2023, with monitoring taking place on a continuous basis (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2021[32]).

One of the core projects involves developing a national sustainability roadmap for the VET sector based on the outputs of a network of 61 institutions working collaboratively on different themes. Activities in the pedagogy and learning theme support institutions in integrating sustainability competences (e.g. climate responsible operations, systems thinking, circular economy) in different professional fields and across different learning contexts (e.g. online, within the institution, outdoors, and in the workplace). This includes training workplace supervisors on sustainable operations and providing teachers with adaptable resources and examples of best practice. The roadmap will serve as a practical resource for institutions and providers, framing the development of local goals and measures related to the green transition (VASKI Project, 2023[33]; VASKI Project, 2023[34]). Another funded project aims to promote careers in sustainability fields through outdoor experiences where students learn about sustainable operations through concrete examples. This project promotes responsibility by encouraging students to reflect on how their actions affect their immediate environment (Hevosopisto, n.d.[35]).

Sweden is developing a broader and more flexible offer of tertiary level vocational education following a national inquiry (2023) that addressed how these courses can support the transition towards a sustainable society, including the goal of achieving net zero by 2045. Vocational tertiary education has grown significantly in Sweden since being introduced in 2009. Employers and VET providers work together on the design and implementation of programmes, 97% of which combine classroom and work-based learning. The National Agency for Higher Vocational Education (MYH) assess the quality and outcomes of courses, supports implementation, and steers provision towards the needs of the labour market through funding mechanisms (OECD, 2021[15]; OECD, 2023[1]).

The 2023 inquiry recognised the contribution tertiary vocational has already made to providing the skills for climate mitigation and the circular economy. However, it points to the challenge of ensuring education and training meets the rapidly changing needs of the green economy, citing a report from the Swedish Confederation of Business Industry wherein employers reported that labour and skills shortages were hindering the green transition. One key finding was that changing the regulatory framework of tertiary education is not enough to bring about change in how providers operate. Instead, the report emphasises the importance of the quality assurance and operational support provided by the MYH in ensuring the successful implementation of programmes. The report also recommends developing more flexible routes into tertiary VET to increase the supply of trainees (Swedish Ministry of Education, 2023[36]). Measures taken to achieve this include developing shorter courses and developing mechanisms for the recognition of prior learning (OECD, 2023[1]).

Sweden’s finance scheme for transition and retraining, introduced in 2022, aims to play a crucial role in facilitating access to higher vocational training and other upskilling and reskilling initiatives that support the green and digital transitions. The scheme is designed to enable workers to upskill or reskill at any stage of their lives by providing them with up to 80% of their salary for up to one year of full- or part-time study. It emerged from collaboration with social partners such as trade unions and industry and these partners continue to be involved its evaluation and continuous improvement (Government of Sweden, 2023[37]; OECD, 2023[1]).

Transforming STEM education for the future science workforce

As well as developing sound disciplinary knowledge in STEM subjects, recent measures in countries and education systems such as Australia, the Flemish Community of Belgium, Kazakhstan and the Slovak Republic aim to promote the transversal competencies – or ‘soft skills’ - that future scientists will need. This includes promoting active pedagogies and supporting partnerships with industry and the science sector to enhance the relevance of learning experiences. For example, Australia’s National STEM School Education Strategy (2016 – 2026), focuses on foundational skills, developing mathematical, scientific, and digital literacy, and promoting competencies such as problem solving, critical analysis and creative thinking skills. The Australian Government plays a key role in sharing research and evaluation findings. A report from 2019 synthesises evaluative evidence from STEM initiatives implemented at national or state and territory level to help professionals design and implement effective interventions that fit their context (Australian Department of Education, 2022[38]; Education Council of Australia, 2021[39]; Education Council of Australia, 2021[39]).

One example that could be of interest to other education systems is the nationwide Science by Doing programme, which has been found to have improved student engagement and strengthened teachers’ capacity to implement Australia’s science curriculum through practical experiences (University of Technology, Sydney, 2018[40]). Science by Doing is an online, evidence-based programme that gives students and teachers free access to curriculum units and resources and provides professional learning modules for teachers. The resources engage students through a guided inquiry approach and relate science learning to real-world issues such as the circular economy, climate change and vaccinations. The programme was updated in 2022 to reflect changes in the Australian Curriculum (Science by Doing, n.d.[41]).

Teachers surveyed for a 2018 evaluation identified the flexibility of the programme as a key strength. Teachers reported that they were able to adapt the programme to their circumstances, meaning those with limited access to technology were still able to use the resources with their students. Students found the resources interesting and fun to use. At the same time, evidence points to the challenge of ensuring such online programmes can adapt to rapid changes in technology and that they are compatible with the wide range of devices teachers and students use. Online programmes can also strengthen their contribution to the evidence base by making greater use of data analytics and comparing student outcomes between participating and non-participating schools (University of Technology, Sydney, 2018[40]).

Alongside strategies for early childhood education and care (ECEC) and school education, countries are increasingly implementing measures to strengthen STEM competencies among adult learners. In 2021, the Flemish Community of Belgium moved from a STEM Action Plan (2012-2020) that targeted learners in school and higher education to a STEM agenda for 2030 that places a greater emphasis on those who have already entered the workforce. This broader and deeper approach to developing STEM competencies responds to priorities set out in the Government of Flanders’ Recovery Plan (2020), international agendas such as the European Green Deal (2020), and skills shortages that have been exacerbated by the green and digital transitions. Building on the guiding principles of the previous action plan, the agenda aims to strengthen STEM literacy among the general population (STEM literacy) while also nurturing STEM specialists from diverse backgrounds (STEM specialisation). Measures targeting adults include an initiative that provides STEM training offers to young people in precarious employment. Another initiative directs entrepreneurs and their employees towards training in STEM fields (Flemish Department of Work and Social Economy, 2021[42]; Flemish Social and Economic Council, 2021[43]).

As part of efforts to improve the quality of STEM education during under the previous action plan, the Flemish Department of Education and Training also developed a quality framework that informed the design of STEM attainment targets of primary and secondary education. Reflecting the twin focus on general STEM literacy and specialist skills, the framework emphasises competencies such as problem solving, collaboration, creativity, communication, and responsibility (Flemish Department of Education and Training, 2015[44]). National data suggest that the implementation of the action plan coincided with an increase in the number of young people progressing from STEM studies in secondary education to higher education. The share of female entrants to STEM pathways in academic and vocational higher education has also increased. However, there has been less progress in increasing participation in STEM in vocational and technical secondary education and adult learning (Flemish Social and Economic Council, 2021[43]).

A report from 2018 also points to the potential of encouraging graduates and workers from other fields to transition to STEM careers by targeting those who already participate in relevant activities. More than half of the STEM graduates surveyed who were currently working in other fields expressed an interest in returning to a STEM job in the future, while one in three graduates from non-STEM fields were interested in a more technological or scientific career. Those who successfully transitioned into STEM careers often did so through courses they took in their spare time, self-study, or leisure activities. As such, the report recommends using available enrolment data to identify people who may be interested in STEM and working with business and industry to embed professional experiences in informal learning. The report also highlights some of the barriers that individuals who wish to transition into STEM careers may face. It points to a need to overcome the perception that mathematics and science are challenging and that rapid developments in technology make it difficult to acquire the knowledge to work in STEM fields (De Coen et al., 2018[45]).

Kazakhstan has also been working to promote domain-specific and transversal competencies related to STEM among adults while consolidating measures that target younger learners. This includes the pilot (2021) of an online STEM bootcamp aimed at women in remote regions organised in partnership with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). As well as introducing participants to fields such as programming and web design, the bootcamps aimed to develop the communication and leadership skills they will need to succeed in a STEM career (United Nations Development Programme, 2021[46]). The UNDP also supported a skill-building marathon (2023) for female scientists already working in higher education that focused on the soft skills they need to promote their research and advance their careers. This responds to some of the gender imbalances in Kazakhstan’s science sector. While women represent more than 50% of the scientific community, they are underrepresented in leadership roles and are more likely to drop out from doctoral programmes than their male counterparts. The women who participated in the event later stressed the need for regular platforms where female scientists can network and discuss their research and career paths (United Nations Development Programme, 2023[47]; United Nations Development Programme, 2023[48]).

At the school level, Kazakhstan has been working to promote an interdisciplinary and project-based approach to STEM through the State Programme for Education and Science Development (2020 – 2025) (Institute of Legislation and Legal Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan, 2021[49]). Beyond renewing curriculum content in STEM subjects, reforms that began in 2014 aimed to embed tasks that support the development of new technologies and scientific innovations. A key pillar has been the introduction of educational robotics, which supports an integrated approach to teaching STEM as well as the development of technical skills such as programming and assembly (Dzharkinbayeva, 2019[50]). According to national data provided to the OECD, more than 1 000 schools have opened robotics laboratories, while teachers have been trained in the field. At the same time, Kazakhstan has reported challenges in ensuring logistical and pedagogical support for the introduction of new STEM approaches, especially rural areas. Kazakhstan is also seeking to ensure that effective STEM practices are shared across the education system (OECD, 2023[1])

While many countries have prioritised STEM, the Slovak Republic has taken a more transversal approach to promoting the skills younger learners need to shape the green economy. Its ongoing primary and lower secondary education reform (2023-2027) aims to shift the focus of teaching and learning from knowledge transmission to the development of the complex competencies that learners will need for life in a low-carbon, digital economy, and society. These include critical thinking, problem solving, collaboration, and initiative and responsibility. The reform is a component of the country’s post-COVID-19 Recovery and Resilience Plan and supports the EU target of achieving climate neutrality by 2050 (Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic, n.d.[51]; Ministry of Education, Science Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic, n.d.[52]).

One of the key measures has been to give teachers and schools greater flexibility in how they organise learning so they can implement a broader range of teaching methods (e.g. project-based learning, block teaching, experimentation) (Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic, n.d.[53]; Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic, n.d.[54]). The Slovak Republic has also established a network of regional teacher support centres. These centres build regional partnerships involving schools, teacher education providers, and other organisations to support the implementation of the reform, including by supporting the professional learning of school leaders and providing mentoring and counselling for teachers. Some 16 centres were established by 2022, with an additional 16 planned for September 2023 to coincide with the initial rollout of the curriculum (Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic, n.d.[55]).

Targeting resources and supports is necessary for a just transition

Since many individuals and families across OECD countries will already be facing constrained financial circumstances in 2024, the targeted education and training measures implemented by some governments will play a crucial role in ensuring the recent push to accelerate the green transition does not exacerbate existing inequalities. In some cases, these policies are informed by an assessment of how processes such as digitalisation and the decarbonisation of the economy will affect specific groups and incorporate measures targeting those at risk of losing out. Governments have also implemented interventions to encourage underrepresented groups or vulnerable workers to enter key sectors and equip them with the competencies they need to succeed. These often combine the kind of practical experiences that benefit people from all backgrounds with more targeted mentoring or career guidance.

In Austria, Wales (United Kingdom), and New Zealand, for example, education and training measures to support the countries’ net zero targets are informed by an assessment of the challenges this transition will pose for different population groups, employment sectors, or regions. These countries have also sought to involve stakeholders from different groups in this process. Austria’s Just Transition Action Plan for Education and Training (2023) is the result of a collaborative process involving stakeholders from industry, science, and civil society that began in 2020 (Austrian Federal Ministry of Climate Action, Environment, Energy, Mobility, Innovation and Technology, 2023[56]). As part of this research, Austria’s Just Transition Committee identified sectors with overwhelmingly negative prospects (e.g. aviation), sectors with unfavourable starting conditions, but which could make the transition more easily (e.g. energy), and those more indirectly affected by the transition to net zero (e.g. tourism) (Meinhart et al., 2022[57]). The resulting action plan includes measures targeted at those in vulnerable industries. From 2023, people working in companies facing closure, restructuring, or technological change will receive tailored career guidance. Other measures include establishing new apprenticeships in key sectors and providing green skills training for teachers and apprenticeship supervisors (Austrian Federal Ministry of Climate Action, Environment, Energy, Mobility, Innovation and Technology, 2023[56]).

In Wales (United Kingdom), the government has recently examined how tackling longstanding inequalities could increase the supply of the skills required for the net zero transition (Parken et al., 2023[58]). The research supports the implementation of Wales’s Net Zero Skills Action Plan (2023), which includes a commitment to develop further actions based on its findings (Welsh Government, 2023[59]). One of the key findings was that Wales will struggle to meet its Net Zero 2050 targets without addressing inequalities in education, training, employment, and the distribution of skills. A particular challenge is that the priority decarbonising sectors identified in Wales’s Net Zero plan have an ageing and disproportionately white and male workforce (e.g. construction, manufacturing, transport, energy). There is an urgent need to widen the pool of trainees to ensure the continued supply of skills. Furthermore, there is an identified lack of employer demand for ‘green’ reskilling and upskilling training. Although the education and training providers interviewed for the research were enthusiastic about implementing these courses, businesses have been hesitant to invest in green jobs and training. Finally, the report underlines the need for a more coordinated and systematic approach to ensuring education and training pathways supply the skills for the green economy (Parken et al., 2023[58]; OECD, 2023[2]). International evidence suggests that other countries face this challenge (OECD, 2023[2]; Cedefop, 2019[60]).

New Zealand plans to monitor the impact of the green transition on different groups on an ongoing basis as part of its Equitable Transition Strategy. Developing an Equitable Transition strategy was one of the actions in New Zealand’s first Emissions Reduction Plan (2022), which outlines the policies and strategies needed for the country to meet its targets on the pathway to achieving net zero emissions by 2050. Following a series of nationwide workshops and a national survey, a draft strategy was published in June 2023 for further consultation, with a final version due to be published in 2024 (New Zealand Ministry for the Environment, n.d.[61]; New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, 2023[62]; New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, n.d.[63]).

The strategy focuses on people, how the transition to a low-emissions economy will affect different groups, and how these groups can be supported. An Interagency Governance Group is charged with ensuring that stakeholders reflecting a broad range of groups are involved in defining the long-term outcomes of the strategy and outlining the steps to achieve them (e.g. Māori, regional and rural communities, women, disabled people, young people, low-income households). This focus is reflected in the Ministry of Education’s contribution to the draft strategy, which includes actions to work with Māori to better understand how the Ministry can support Māori-led capacity-building programmes. Other actions aim to ensure that the VET system can support the short-term needs of workers affected by rapid changes in the labour market while providing for the long-term needs of workers for a low-emissions future. New Zealand is also developing a data tool that will enable national and local Government, Māori and community organisations and other users to monitor how emissions reduction policies are impacting different population groups over time. This will include indicators relating to well-being as well as employment rates and income levels in different sectors (New Zealand Ministry for the Environment, n.d.[61]; New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, 2023[62]; OECD, 2023[1]).

Since 2019, Canada has been updating two existing federal programmes that offer young people experiences in the environmental science, STEM, or natural resources sectors with a focus on addressing the needs of those facing barriers to employment (e.g. those living in rural communities, Indigenous, LGBTQ+, youth from low-income families, and young women). Both programmes work by providing wage subsidies to employers and are offered as part of its Youth Employment and Skills Strategy (YESS) (Employment and Social Development Canada, 2023[64]). The Science and Technology Internship Program (STIP)—Green Jobs provides 15-30 year-olds with internships and mentoring in natural resource sectors such as energy, forestry, mining, earth science, clean technology. According to national data, the programme created 4 000 green jobs between 2017/18, with some 60% of participants coming from the equity groups targeted by the programme (women, Aboriginal peoples, people with disabilities, members of visible minorities) (Natural Resources Canada, 2023[65]). The Science Horizons Youth Internship Program helps organisations hire recent higher education graduates, providing them with 6-to-12-month experiences working on environmental projects. As well as providing a 25 000 CAD wage subsidy to employers, the programme provides 5 000 CAD per participant to fund skills development, certifications and training, and accessibility supports (Government of Canada, 2023[66]).

Results from the most recent evaluation of the YESS (2020) indicate that interventions involving a wage subsidy can support labour market integration among young people with upper secondary education. In line with the programme’s objective of promoting transitions to the labour market, a larger proportion of participants were still employed immediately after taking part in such programmes as opposed to having returned to school. An impact analysis of a similar wage subsidy programme led by Employment and Social Development Canada found that participants had, on average, higher earnings, a higher incidence of employment, and were less likely to claim social assistance benefits compared to a control group. Since young people with upper secondary education tend to face less barriers to employment, however, it is less clear from the evaluation whether those without it will benefit in the same way (Employment and Social Development Canada, 2020[67]). As such, it will be important for Canada to adapt these federal programmes to the needs of disadvantaged young people and monitor their impact.

In a similar vein’s Technology Leap (2012) offers internships to young people who have completed natural science or technology programmes in upper secondary school and has contributed to more women applying for engineering courses in higher education. The initiative aims to stimulate young men and women’s interest in pursuing studies and careers in technology, engineering, and the natural sciences and increase the supply of skills that support the digital and green transitions. Internships last four months, and participants receive a salary agreed between employer organisations and trade unions (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2023[68]).

A 2022 evaluation compared the outcomes of students who participated in the Technology Leap between 2012 and 2020 to young people from the target group who either did not apply to the programme or were unsuccessful. Some 63.5% of Technology Leap enrolled in natural sciences or technology courses within two years of completing upper secondary school compared to 43% of the target group overall. While men were overall more likely to transition to courses in these subjects, the gender gap was smaller among those who had participated in the Technology Leap, suggesting the programme helped to reduce the effect of gender on study choices (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2022[69]).

The evaluation points to some of the factors that helped to translate participants’ broad interest in STEM into a decision to apply to a higher education programme in a related field. Firstly, the practical experience provided by the internship clarified participants expectations about working in a STEM career and helped them orientate their interests within a field that many previously saw as diffuse. The experience of being trusted, undertaking independent tasks, and receiving support in the workplace helped to develop their confidence in being able to work in a STEM role. Importantly, the workplace experience challenged their ideas of who can be an engineer, notably the perception that an engineer is a middle-aged man. Female participants reported that the internship made them feel more confident that they were welcome in the industry (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2022[69]).

However, the evaluation recommends that the programme should be more explicitly targeted at disadvantaged young people and those from immigrant backgrounds. Young people from these groups are underrepresented in the Technology Leap and in STEM subjects at tertiary level. Young people from smaller towns or rural areas were also less likely to apply to the programme, since many of the internships offered were in big cities. This points to a need to reach out to employers in less urbanised areas (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2022[69]).

Other recent initiatives aimed at increasing the participation of underrepresented groups in STEM combine practical experiences with more personalised support or mentorship. Since 2021, the Flemish Community of Belgium has been working to expand the reach of its 100 STEM academies, which have been shown to have a positive impact on participants’ attitudes towards STEM, notably among girls (Flemish Department of Work and Social Economy, 2021[42]; Blondeel and Coussement, 2022[70]). The academies offer practical, integrated STEM activities to 5-18 year-olds outside of school hours and implement measures to target underrepresented groups. The Flemish Agency for Innovation and Entrepreneurship invites calls for funding from a range of organisations that wish to establish a STEM academy. This could include schools or youth organisations with experience in organising relevant extracurricular activities or individuals with STEM expertise. Activities must be design and inquiry-based, provide learners with insight on the real-world relevance of STEM, and strengthen transversal as well as domain-specific competencies (Flemish Agency for Innovation and Entrepreneurship, n.d.[71]).

An evaluation carried out in 2021-2022 highlights key factors that explain the programme’s positive effect on young people’s understanding of the importance of STEM for society, their self-efficacy and sense of competence, and their sense that others saw them as a ‘STEM’ person. It found a particular effect on girls’ perceptions of STEM and their intention to study STEM in upper secondary education. Firstly, the STEM academies offered hands-on activities which gave participants opportunities to build, design, and research with specific materials (e.g. wood, computers) and led to a concrete result (e.g. making something move). The opportunity to learn something was an important motivating factor for children and their parents, and especially for girls. Finally, the social dimension of the activities also helped to motivate students. Children and parents interviewed for the evaluation underlined the role of the coaches or mentors who led activities in ensuring quality and student engagement. The evaluation calls for further research on the impact of those who lead informal STEM activities, especially since their role often differs from that of a teacher or sports coach. The evaluation was also limited in the sense that it only looked at the short-term impact of STEM activities. This points to need for evaluations that monitor the attitudes, performance, and study choices of young people who have participated in STEM interventions over the medium-to-long-term, a challenge that has also been identified in Australia (Blondeel and Coussement, 2022[70]; Education Council of Australia, 2021[39]). Building on the success of the STEM academies, the Flemish government wants to ensure every child and young person can access them by expanding their activities to every municipality in the region (Flemish Department of Work and Social Economy, 2021[42]).

Coaching and mentoring are also an important dimension of Australia’s Curious Minds programme, in which girls in the final years of lower secondary education explore various aspects of STEM in a series of national camps. Results from the first implementation period (2015-2021) suggest that it has had a positive impact on participants’ confidence and their motivation to study male dominated courses (Curious Minds, 2023[72]). One of the key success factors identified is the strength of the student-mentor relationships; girls work on a project with a female mentor working in a male dominated field over a period of six months (Curious Minds, n.d.[73]). Based on evaluations of the pilot phase of the programme, the mentoring system was enhanced into a coaching model with a focus on more specific goals. A key indicator of the success of the programme is that as of 2020, 100% of participants chose to study at least one STEM subject in upper secondary education (Education Council of Australia, 2021[74]). Some 49% of girls who participated between 2015 and 2021 came from more disadvantaged areas, pointing to the programme’s potential to address multiple aspects of diversity (Curious Minds, 2023[72]).

Furthermore, a programme from South Australia also combines mentoring and career guidance with scholarships that enable students from underrepresented groups to pursue STEM studies at upper secondary level (e.g. students with a lower socio-economic status and Aboriginal learners). Students can use the scholarship funds to cover tutoring, digital devices, excursions, or any other activity that directly supports them in achieving in their STEM subject. The mentoring and careers activities support their professional development (South Australia Department of Education, n.d.[75]). An internal evaluation found that the cost of the scholarship compared to the positive impact on students’ performance and career aspirations meant the intervention provided good value for money (Education Council of Australia, 2021[74]).

Some policy lessons emerge on helping learners to acquire transversal competencies through active learning experiences for 2024

Recent data and analysis from these and other policy experiences to help learners acquire transversal competencies through active learning experiences offer some lessons to help guide education systems’ efforts in 2024.

1. Education systems can leverage digital technologies to promote equal access to enrichment and careers activities related to green jobs

Providing students with the kind of active learning experiences that help them shape the green economy can be challenging for schools in disadvantaged, rural or remote areas. Education systems are addressing this challenge by using online learning for enrichment and work-readiness activities and to foster collaboration between schools across distances.

Data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018 indicate that advantaged students have better access to work-readiness activities than their disadvantaged counterparts. On average across OECD countries, there was 8.6 percentage point difference in the share of students in advantaged schools where career guidance was formally scheduled in the timetable compared to students in disadvantaged schools. There was also a 2.8 percentage point difference in the share of advantaged students who reported that they had completed an internship, attended a job shadowing, or visited a job fair compared to disadvantaged students.
Queensland’s (Australia) Virtual STEM Academies (QVSA) provides an illustration of how students in rural and remote areas can benefit from these kinds of enrichment and extension activities (Education Council of Australia, 2021[74]). QVSA delivers enrichment programmes focusing on real-world STEM challenges using a low bandwidth virtual video conferencing platform. In the grand challenges programme, for example, students from different schools work collaboratively to solve problems of national or global significance using science, technology and innovation. As well as supporting the delivery of these programmes to rural and remote communities at a low cost, the platform allows students and teachers to collaborate with peers across the state of Queensland and draw on the expertise of university researchers and industry experts.
At the same time, further evaluative evidence from Australia points to a need to ensure that online programmes can adapt to rapid changes in technology and that they are compatible with the wide range of devices teachers and students use. Online programmes can also strengthen their contribution to the evidence base by making greater use of data analytics and comparing student outcomes between participating and non-participating schools (University of Technology, Sydney, 2018[40]).

2. Strengthening coordination and anticipation mechanisms is essential to ensure the ongoing supply of green skills

Addressing existing skills bottlenecks and ensuring the ongoing supply of skills for the green economy requires a coordinated strategy that builds on existing strengths and takes account of future needs. This requires education policy makers and providers to work with actors in other areas of government and from business and industry to set out a common vision and to define a pathway for achieving it.

OECD data indicate that the demand for ‘green-task’ jobs—defined as jobs involving at least 10% of tasks that support environmental goals—has grown faster than the demand for non-green-task jobs since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. While vacancies for green-task jobs increased by almost 110% between the last quarter of 2019 and the second quarter of 2022, the number of non-green-task vacancies posted increased by some 80% (OECD, 2023[2]).
International evidence from the OECD and CEDEFOP suggests that many countries lack a comprehensive strategy for addressing evolving skills demands and further evidence collected for this report shows that more strategic collaboration could take place with partners such as employers or the ministries of labour (see Chapter 2) (OECD, 2023[2]; Cedefop, 2019[60]). Instead, initiatives to promote green skills tend to emerge on an ad hoc basis and focus on regions and sectors already experiencing shortages. The OECD recommends complementing existing efforts with a structured and systematic strategy that builds synergies between different initiatives and anticipates and responds to medium- and longer-term skills needs (OECD, 2023[2]).

3. A short-term view is not enough; educators and policy makers must monitor the longer-term impact of green skills interventions to generate evidence on what works

Several education systems have implemented measures to increase the supply of skills in STEM and other key sectors in the green economy. Tracking the outcomes of learners who have benefitted from these experiences (e.g. achievement, study choices, employment) as they progress through the education system and into the labour market helps to generate evidence on which interventions are having the desired short- and long-term effects. However, evidence points to the need of adopting a longer-term view.

Data from the EPO Survey 2023 suggest that the monitoring and evaluation of efforts to promote the knowledge, skills and attitudes for the green economy and climate action are less of a priority for education systems than other areas. Some 72% of participating education systems indicated that introducing/strengthening the assessment, monitoring and evaluation of outcomes and processes related to sustainability education was considered a priority for the next five years to at least a moderate extent. However, the share of education systems that indicated that this was a priority was the lowest of all of the other areas of curriculum and training development referenced in this item of the survey (OECD, 2023[1]).
Impact studies of interventions to promote STEM in students in some education systems point to a shared need and challenge of going beyond monitoring shorter term impact to adopting a broader, longer-term approach. For example, a recent evaluation of STEM academies in the Flemish Community of Belgium recommended continuing to monitor participants. The aim is to see whether the increase in their self-efficacy and understanding of the importance of STEM observed at the end of the programme leads to increased participation in STEM subjects and careers in the future (Blondeel and Coussement, 2022[70]). Similarly, a synthesis of evaluations of STEM interventions in Australia recommends monitoring the STEM achievement of beneficiaries in national assessments over time (Education Council of Australia, 2021[39]). In the United Kingdom, a report on widening participation in higher education highlights a need for evaluations that go beyond participants’ self-reported aspirations and attitudes following an intervention. Rather, evaluations should track their pathway through secondary education and enrolment in tertiary education to see which interventions have a long-term effect (Robinson and Salvestrini, 2020[76]).
An example of an evaluation strategy that monitors both short and longer-term outcomes comes from Canada. The evaluation of the Career Focus programme incorporates an incremental impact analysis comparing the labour market outcomes of participants and a control group for at least five years following their completion of the programme (Employment and Social Development Canada, 2020[67]).

Education systems must promote a culture of learning and collaboration in institutions and support external partnerships to provide experiences for all

In 2024, as governments seek to ensure the supply of skills that will drive a green recovery, they should not forget the important role played by education institutions at all levels of the system. Short-term disruptions such as the COVID-19 pandemic and longer-term evolutions such as digitalisation have drawn attention to the role that these institutions and the professionals who work in them play in equipping learners to thrive through change and meeting the evolving skills needs of economies and societies.

However, education institutions can also generate research and innovations that contribute directly to the goals set out in national recovery strategies or environmental policies. Policymakers can optimise the contribution of education institutions to the green transition, firstly, by promoting a culture of learning and collaboration, and secondly, by supporting external partnerships that empower learners to shape the green economy. This includes partnerships with parents, employers, and the local community.

The OECD Framework for Responsiveness and Resilience in Education Policy provides guidance on strengthening the resilience of education staff so they can prepare learners for many possible futures and on convening a wider range of actors to advance the work of institutions (OECD, 2021[15]). This section applies this guidance to the question of how education institutions can strengthen their contribution to the green economy through their internal culture and their external relationships.

Promoting a culture of learning and collaboration matters to bring the green curriculum to life

Professionals may experience specific challenges when implementing the kind of active pedagogies that develop the competencies learners need to thrive in the green economy. Evidence from the Teaching and Learning and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2018 suggests that teachers make use of some of these pedagogies more than others. While some 73.7% of teachers on average across OECD countries reported that they ‘frequently’ or ‘always’ refer to a problem from everyday life or work to demonstrate why new knowledge is useful, only 28.6% said they ‘frequently’ or ‘always’ give students projects that require at least one week to complete (see Figure 3.4).

Previous research points to challenges in deciding how to apply these pedagogies within and across different disciplines, linking transversal competencies and active pedagogies to specialist content, rethinking assessment strategies, and understanding how competencies articulate in different industries and professions (Mulà et al., 2017[9]). Bringing about a shift in pedagogical practices may be especially challenging in contexts where teachers are used to working within their own disciplines—such as in secondary or higher education—and or where they are wedded to more teacher-centred approaches (Mulà et al., 2017[9]; Lozano et al., 2019[12]). Those working in ECEC or primary education may be less confident in their disciplinary knowledge in STEM fields or in integrating technology into their practices (Goos et al., 2020[11]).

Figure 3.4. Teachers are making greater use of some active pedagogies than others

Many of the features of effective professional learning previously highlighted by the Education Policy Outlook also feature in the literature on sustainability competencies, innovation, and STEM education (OECD, 2021[15]). Recent studies point to the importance of practice-oriented, collaborative, and institution-based forms of professional learning that take place over a sustained duration, give professionals time to test new ideas and reflect, and make use of practices such as mentoring, school networking and coaching (Redman, Wiek and Redman, 2018[78]; Mulà et al., 2017[9]; Goos et al., 2020[11]; Mulà et al., 2017[9]). These approaches are often more cost-effective than external forms of professional development and can be better tailored to local needs (OECD, 2021[15]).

Involving partners from fields related to the green economy in the delivery of professional learning can help teachers better align their teaching with work in these sectors (OECD, 2022[21]). However, data from TALIS 2018 suggest that few teachers in the OECD take part in this type of professional learning. On average across OECD countries, only 17.4% of teachers reported participating in observation visits to business premises, public organisations, or non-governmental organisations as part of professional learning activities in the 12 months prior to the survey (see Figure 3.5). Like their students, teachers will benefit from further opportunities to develop their practical competence in key sectors.

Figure 3.5. Few teachers take part in professional learning activities involving partners beyond the education sector

Supporting external partnerships can help provide more cost-effective approaches for greening initiatives

As pointed out in Chapter 4, education ministries need to engage with local actors such as parents, community bodies, employers and entrepreneurs to help advance the work of education institutions on aspects related to the transition to greener and fairer societies. Institutions can draw on resources and expertise in the local area, while partners benefit from the skills and innovations generated within local education institutions (OECD, 2021[15]). Importantly, institutions can work with these partners to provide learners with experiences that develop key competencies and help them relate what they learn to the green economy.

The recent experience of the COVID-19 pandemic has drawn attention to the role of parents as partners in the learning process and the positive impact that engaging with them can have on learning outcomes, especially for younger learners. This is especially true for the most vulnerable learners (OECD, 2021[15]). Interventions aimed at increasing the participation of underrepresented groups in environmental or STEM fields often recognise this role and include measures to strengthen parents’ engagement in their children’s learning, to challenge parental stereotypes, or even to strengthen parents’ self-efficacy in these areas (Goos et al., 2020[11]; Camasso and Jagannathan, 2017[79]; Wolfe and Riggs, 2017[80]).
Individuals or groups in the local community (e.g. individual volunteers, voluntary or professional organisations, other education institutions) can support institutions in providing clubs, summer camps, trips or visits that develop learners’ practical competence in key domains such as environmental engineering or sustainable design or that strengthen transversal competencies such as creativity and collaboration. Relatable role models working in relevant fields can mentors to students from underrepresented groups (Goos et al., 2020[11]; Archer et al., 2020[81]; Bowser and Cid, 2021[19]; Marginson et al., 2013[18]; Wolfe and Riggs, 2017[80]; DeFelice et al., 2014[20]).
Local employers or entrepreneurs can provide experiences more directly related to the world of work. Related activities range from one-off career talks or workplace visits to longer-term collaborations that involve solving industry problems. Partnerships with industry need not be limited to the sectors commonly associated with the green economy (e.g. energy, agriculture, transport). The green transition has implications for all employment sectors and contact with the world of work can helps strengthen transversal competencies (Miranda and Larcombe, 2012[14]; OECD, 2021[15]).

In addition to drawing on resources from the local community, educational institutions can also play a direct role in shaping the green economy at the local, regional or national level. Much of the research on this theme focuses on the role of VET and higher education institutions. These institutions can generate research or innovations to solve problems identified by local government or companies but can also develop technologies or processes that help partners operate more sustainably (Ávila et al., 2017[82]). Quality relationships between institutions and employers also help to ensure alignment between the education and training pathways and the demand for skills in the local green economy (OECD, 2021[15]; Miranda and Larcombe, 2012[14]; OECD, 2023[2]).

Policymakers must ensure that teachers, leaders, and other education professionals are adequately prepared to engage with external partners and have the time and space to do so. This may involve creating dedicated roles for engagement activities or carving out dedicated time (OECD, 2021[15]). However, it is crucial that education staff – notably those in leadership roles – value these collaborations and understand their importance. One recent study identifies a lack of support from higher education leaders as a key barrier to sustainability and innovation within the sector. The authors point to a need to improve the spread of new knowledge and technologies beyond the ‘walls’ of higher education institutions through a process of continuous learning that involves local government and the private sector (Ávila et al., 2017[82]). At the school level, TALIS 2018 data indicate that there is progress to be made in strengthening principals’ collaboration with local businesses and the community. Across OECD countries, principals reported that they spent an average of 5.8% of their time on interactions with the local and regional community, business and industry (see Figure 3.6).

Figure 3.6. There is room to strengthen principals’ collaborations

Selected recent policy efforts

Recent efforts to strengthen the contribution of education institutions and the professionals who work in them to the green economy include practical professional learning initiatives, many of which bring together networks of education institutions. Governments have also sought to nurture these professionals’ collaboration with partners in business and industry to stimulate innovation, notably in the higher education sector. Some lessons identified from the initiatives analysed relate to the importance of engaging parents as a way to challenge stereotypes and misconceptions related to the green transition, as well as strengthening the role of institutional leaders to support aspects related to green innovation.

Promoting a culture of learning and collaboration

Recognising the role of teaching professionals in ensuring the supply of skills needed to achieve short and long-term climate mitigation targets, in recent years, countries have sought to provide them with professional learning experiences to strengthen their pedagogical practice as well as relevant technical knowledge and skills. Recent efforts in this area aim to place teachers in the driving seat, and to give them opportunities to implement projects and test new approaches, often in collaboration with colleagues in other institutions or partners outside of the formal education sector. The recent experience of the COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the trend towards more flexible forms of professional learning, with an increasing range of offers in online or blended formats.

Recent evidence from Germany illustrates how policymakers can support teaching professionals in promoting STEM and sustainability competencies among younger children. Funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, the Little Scientists Foundation provides a range of support for professionals in ECEC centres, primary schools, and after-school care centres to help them implement an inquiry-based, evidence-informed approach to STEM. Since 2018, the Foundation has also offered advanced courses in education for sustainable development (ESD). A 2023 report identifies key lessons for the successful implementation of computer science education at pre-primary and primary levels. Drawing on national and international evidence, the report informs the design and continuous improvement of the Foundation’s two computer science courses for teachers; an introductory course launched in 2017, and an advanced course offered in a blended format since 2021 (Little Scientists Foundation, 2023[84]; Little Scientists Foundation, n.d.[85]).

The report points to the importance of empowering teachers to adapt new methods to their circumstances and the needs of their students and engaging parents as partners in the learning process. A key finding was that to integrate computer science in their everyday teaching, teachers need to develop competence in three key areas: identifying and designing effective learning environments; selecting quality materials that are adapted to the child’s individual stage of development; and maintaining children’s motivation. The courses can provide them with a range of practical ideas for learning activities and give them opportunities to implement and reflect on them between sessions (Little Scientists Foundation, 2023[84]).

In line with other recent evaluations of the Foundation’s programmes, the report also underlines the role of instructional leadership in driving institutional change. According to participants in the pilot of the computer science workshop, the importance ECEC leaders placed on the subject influenced the degree of time and financial resources they made available for its implementation. A report from 2019 points to the important role these leaders play in disseminating the knowledge they had gained in ESD training among their colleagues (Little Scientists Foundation, 2019[86]).

Recent experiences from Scotland (United Kingdom) and Ireland also highlight instructional leadership and parental engagement as key enablers for transforming the culture of institutions. These initiatives bring together clusters of schools and point to the value of fostering collaboration between professionals working at different levels of the education system. Scotland’s Improving Gender Balance and Equalities (IGBE) team works with clusters of schools and ECEC centres to embed a whole-of-institution approach to addressing gender imbalances in subject choices, notably in STEM fields and apprenticeships. The team was established in 2019, following a three-year action research project, and had reached 1 156 institutions by 2022. Activities include face-to-face and online workshops for teachers, enquiry-based research, and gender-aware leadership training. There has also been a strong focus on working with ECEC centres to challenge gender stereotypes and ingrained norms from an early age (Scottish Government, 2022[87]; Education Scotland, 2023[88]).

A review of the initial action research project (2018) identified the role of the project champions—often a school leader or Head of Science—as a key success factor. These champions played a key role in coordinating school-level activity, liaising with the project officers, and promoting the project among their colleagues. Teachers identified the partnerships that emerged between institutions at different education levels as another key success factor. Some institutions had embedded a gender balance focus in their transition activities, while STEM ambassadors from some secondary schools worked with primary school students from their cluster. The findings suggest that as well as ensuring that young people receive consistent messages about gender as they progress through the education system, this approach can promote the sharing of effective practices between education levels (SDS Evaluation and Research team, 2018[89]).

Several of partnerships established through Ireland’s School Excellence Fund (Digital and STEM), involved collaboration with business, industry, and the higher education sector as well as between primary and secondary schools. Ireland funded 30 digital clusters and 10 STEM clusters between 2018 and 2022 for collaborative projects promoting the innovative use of digital technologies and STEM in teaching and learning (Irish Department of Education, 2023[90]; Professional Development Service for Teachers, n.d.[91]). Participating schools had a dedicated advisor from Ireland’s Professional Development Service for Teachers to support their learning and collaboration. One project aimed to bridge the gap from primary to secondary education by developing digital skills among primary students. Students from the secondary school leading the cluster mentored primary students and worked with them on projects involving robotics, coding and renewable energy. In the second phase of the project, students and teachers were trained on using Google apps in the classroom (Professional Development Service for Teachers, n.d.[91]).

Benefits and challenges identified for the cluster model identified in a 2022 evaluation include that the financial grant provided for materials and personnel and the dedicated out-of-school time given to the clusters played a key role in enabling collaboration within schools and between the formal and informal education sectors. This enabled teachers and students to extend learning opportunities beyond the school gates while also drawing on skills from the local community. The report recommends strengthening links with the non-formal education sector to provide further professional learning opportunities for teachers. Recognising the role of school leaders in ensuring the success of the clusters, it also calls for more tailored training activities for principals (Morrisey, 2022[92]).

Other recent initiatives bring together partners from education and business to develop flexible, industry-relevant learning opportunities for VET professionals. Between 2020 and 2022, for example Germany’s Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) funded seven projects developed in collaboration between training providers and strategic partners such as professional associations, trade unions, and public bodies at the local, regional or national level (German Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training, n.d.[93]). The projects were selected from a previous round of funding (2015-2019) which aimed to strengthen professional training for sustainable development and green growth (German Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training, n.d.[94]). The aim of the 2020-2022 funding round was to adapt successful projects to focus more explicitly on the competence development of VET teachers and trainers and to reflect the increasing demand for digital skills in the workplace. The projects were also scaled up, either by implementing them more widely (e.g. scaling from local to national level), or by applying successful models to a broader range of professional domains (German Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training, n.d.[93]).

One project adapted a programme on sustainable food production that had been designed for trainee bakers to meet the professional development needs of training staff in the entire food industry. This involved developing, testing and evaluating new offline, online and blended learning approaches (NachDenkEr Project, n.d.[95]; German Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training, n.d.[93]; Rothe et al., 2022[96]). According to the project implementation report, maintaining close contact with training staff enabled the project team to develop a learning offer that met their needs. This included developing shorter introductory online courses on sustainability and digitalisation in the food trade and giving interested participants opportunities to specialise later. The team also offered face-to-face modules at industry events to reach a larger audience (Rothe et al., 2022[96]).

Partner organisations from Spain, Italy, Portugal, Greece, and Malta took a similar collaborative approach to developing a new green skills qualification for trainers in the construction industry, which they launched in 2020. The eleven partners included building sector organisations, VET providers and higher education research centres (Bus.Trainers Project, n.d.[97]). The project began with an assessment of the skills needs of training staff, drawing on the methodology of the European Qualifications Framework (EQF). This process informed the design of the content, structure and learning objectives of the qualifications and the resources produced in the appropriate languages. A pilot of the open online course took place in 2019 and was used to make improvements ahead of the official launch. After completing 200 teaching hours on themes such as energy efficiency and renewable energy systems, participants receive an ‘Eco-trainer’ accreditation corresponding to eight European Credit System for Vocational Education and Training credits (Bus.Trainers Project, n.d.[98]; Bus.Trainers, 2020[99]). The partners have signed an agreement with actions to ensure the sustainability of the programme and commissioned an external evaluation to support continuous improvement (Bus.Trainers, 2020[100]).

Education institutions can also be supported to develop a green institutional culture and build green partnerships

Governments are increasingly seeking to harness the innovative capacity of educational institutions to achieve the goals set out in their COVID-19 recovery strategies and longer-term environmental goals. Some have implemented measures to foster collaboration between VET or higher education and research institutions and business or industry partners to address goals related to skills development or to stimulate research and innovation that addresses climate goals. The analysis conducted for this report suggests that direct government interventions to develop school-industry partnerships may be less common, although these partnerships are an important dimension of some countries’ STEM strategies.

Partnerships between higher education institutions (HEIs) and industry are a crucial dimension of recent environmental strategies in countries such as Singapore, Denmark, and Korea. Singapore’s Green Plan 2030, established in 2021, sets out concrete and ambitious targets for a ten-year period to support the longer-term goal of achieving net zero emissions by 2050. Several of the targets have direct implications for skills development, such as the target of quadrupling solar energy deployment by 2025 and greening 80% of Singapore’s buildings by 2030 (Government of Singapore, n.d.[101]; Government of Singapore, n.d.[102]). As part of these efforts, the Ministry of Education is supporting HEIs to nurture community and industry partnerships that address national sustainability goals or that empower local partners to reduce their carbon emissions (Singapore Ministry of Education, 2022[103]).

For example, the Integrative Built Environment Centre at Temasek Polytechnic was established in 2022 to support the Green Plan. Collaboration with a range of industry partners helps to ensure the relevance of teaching and research within the Centre, but also supports a culture of learning within these companies (Temasek Polytechnic, n.d.[104]; Singapore Ministry of Education, 2022[103]). As well as offering initial and continuing professional education for the built environment sector, the Centre develops innovative solutions to support industry transformation. An example of a more mature initiative comes from Nanyang Technological University, where the Renewable Energy Integration Demonstrator Singapore (REIDS) has been operating since 2014. On one level, REIDS serves the needs of local business and public sector partners by fostering research and development in fields related to energy. However, the project has a broader remit of designing, demonstrating and testing solutions for sustainable and affordable energy access for all across the Southeast Asia region. The project is already supplying energy to a landfill facility run by Singapore’s National Environment Agency (Nanyang Technological University, n.d.[105]; Drozdowski-Strehl, 2017[106]).

Since 2022, Denmark has been funding four green partnerships bringing together actors from research, business, and the public sector to address the missions set out in its Green Research Strategy (2020). This mission-driven, collaborative approach supports Denmark’s goal of achieving a 70% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 and net zero emissions by 2050 while also increasing the competitiveness of Danish business and industry (Danish Ministry of Higher Education and Science, n.d.[107]; Innovation Fund of Denmark, 2022[108]). Over a five-year period, each partnership will work on a sequence of multidisciplinary innovation projects and develop concrete solutions to one of four missions: carbon capture and storage; green fuels for transport and industry; sustainable agriculture and food production; and recycling and plastic waste reduction. Denmark’s Innovation Foundation oversees the allocation of funding and the monitoring of outputs. This began with a two-step process whereby the Foundation invited HEIs and other organisations involved in research and innovation to develop a roadmap for 2050 describing opportunities and challenges relating to one of the missions. With the support of national and international experts, the Foundation selected one or more roadmaps under each mission, invited partnership proposals, and evaluated submissions based on a research and innovation assessment (Innovation Fund of Denmark, 2022[108]; Innovation Fund of Denmark, n.d.[109]). A further funding call was opened in 2023, enabling existing partnerships to implement additional streams of work or to invite additional partners (Innovation Fund of Denmark, 2023[110]; Mission Green Fuels, n.d.[111]).

The government of Korea has also played an active role in facilitating collaboration between education and research institutions and partners from industry and the public sector as part of the National Strategy for Green Growth (2009-2050) and the most recent Five-Year Plan for Green Growth (2019-2023) (Government of Korea, 2019[112]; Global Green Growth Institute, 2015[113]). As part of the Global Frontier Project (2010-2021), for example, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) funded 15 clusters made up of different research organisations to conduct R&D projects in high-risk and high-impact areas related to the green economy. Research priorities were identified through expert group meetings, public hearings, and an assessment of global issues and future trends. One of the aims of the project was to draw on expertise from different disciplines to enable technological convergence. One project sought to integrate biotechnology and chemical technology to develop materials that could replace petroleum-based energy products. The research centre brought together some 300 researchers from universities, public and private research institutes, and private companies (Global Green Growth Institute, 2015[113]).

A study published in 2018 provides guidance on how to ensure the sustainability of the research clusters beyond the end of the funding period. To ensure the financial sustainability of projects, the report recommends strengthening the commercialisation capacity of project teams and encouraging them to gradually expand their profit-making activities. It also recommends developing clear criteria to the continuation of projects, and a clear plan for their continuation or termination. In cases where projects come to end, there is a need to consider who the intellectual property they generated belongs to (Business Strategy Research Institute, 2018[114]). The Netherlands provides funding and support for regional networks to provide flexible lifelong learning opportunities that address identified skills shortages, with the first wave of projects focusing on the energy transition and raw materials. Beyond addressing skills bottlenecks in key economic sectors, the National Catalyst for Lifelong Learning (2022) aims to develop a lifelong learning ecosystem and promote a learning culture where it is common for people to invest in their personal and professional development through their lives, through both formal and informal learning, and to move between employment sectors. The programme follows a Quadruple Helix model, which involves bringing together partners from four sectors of society (industry, education, the public sector, and civil society) to stimulate innovation. Education partners include VET institutions, research universities, and universities of applied science. Networks can request funding for smaller projects that bring together relevant partners to identify development needs and propose an innovative lifelong learning solution (e.g. micro-credentials, a skills passport) or for major projects that involve testing and evaluating skills development approaches based on identified needs. The first wave of projects launched in June 2023, with the latest funding round focusing on transforming educational institutions (Metselaar, 2023[115]; National Lifelong Learning Catalyst, n.d.[116]). Countries such as Ireland and Australia have produced guidelines to support schools and businesses in developing partnerships that support the development of STEM competencies among younger learners and their teachers. The guidelines highlight common success factors for effective partnerships, but also point to the challenges that schools and business often face.

Both guidelines advocate for ensuring support from the whole school community, and especially school leaders. This was one of the key messages from the school and business representatives interviewed for the Australian report (STEM Partnerships Forum, 2018[117]). Ensuring a whole-of-school approach helps to avoid the risk that partnerships rely on the motivation of individual teachers or school leaders and means they are more likely to be sustainable in the long-term (STEM Partnerships Forum, 2018[117]; Irish Department of Education, 2023[118]). To achieve this, the guidelines from Ireland recommend that schools establish a core STEM team that includes leaders, learners, and parents (Irish Department of Education, 2023[118]). In both countries, the guidelines also recommend actively involving teachers in partnership activities. This includes creating opportunities for teachers to develop their own industry-relevant knowledge and competencies. Industry partners in Australia indicated that partnerships were more effective when teachers engaged with them and took an interest in what students were learning (STEM Partnerships Forum, 2018[117]).

In a similar vein, the guidelines from Ireland recommend that schools involve careers professionals in partnership activities so they can make links between the learning and students’ future career and study choices (Irish Department of Education, 2023[118]). Finally, both guidelines stress the importance of defining clear roles, responsibilities, objectives and goals at the early stages of a partnership. Partnerships are more likely to be effective when such goals align with national curricula, or with school-level goals. The Australian guidelines set out a 7-step process for planning and implementing an effective partnership, from identifying strengths and needs to designing and implementing an evaluation strategy (STEM Partnerships Forum, 2018[117]). A common challenge identified in both guidelines is that some schools may have greater access to potential partners than others, due to their location or connections within the parent community. A solution identified in Ireland is for schools to join forces to better engage with a business or industry partner (Irish Department of Education, 2023[118]).

Another key finding from the Australian research was that successful school-industry partnerships were facilitated by an intermediary organisation (e.g. an education authority, a teacher professional organisation, a science centre or agency, a HEI). These organisations played an important role in mitigating the challenges that can arise from the cultural differences between schools and industry. Importantly, they can help industry partners navigate school and system requirements (e.g. understanding the school calendar and teaching cycles, child protection requirements). While some intermediaries simply played match making role – helping schools find industry partners or vice versa – others played a more active role in designing and implementing partnership activities (STEM Partnerships Forum, 2018[117]).

Some policy lessons emerge on supporting local learner-centred networks

Recent data and analysis from these and other policy experiences emerge to help local networks become learner-centred and promote connections that nurture change and opportunities for all in 2024.

Educators need to engage parents as key partners in their efforts within education institutions to challenge stereotypes and misconceptions related to the green transition

Parents and carers of younger learners play a key role in empowering these learners to shape the green economy. Like teachers and other key actors, however, they may harbour stereotyped or outdated ideas about education and work that hamper efforts to broaden learners’ skills sets and perspectives. Engaging them as equal partners in the learning process can help to alleviate any concerns they have and challenge misconceptions.

OECD evidence points to a need to strengthen collaboration with parents and guardians. While 62.4% of school principals on average across the OECD reported that parents or guardians support student achievement in their school either “quite a bit” or “a lot”, only around half (47.9%) indicated that parents or guardians were involved in school activities to the same degree.

A common challenge identified in the implementation of computer science education in ECEC centres in Germany was giving teachers access to digital devices and that some parents objected to the idea of using them with younger children. Teacher professional learning activities organised by the Little Scientists Foundation therefore provide examples of how children can explore concepts such as encryption without using computers and how teachers can use physical environments to address key competencies. The Foundation also supports ECEC professionals to engage with parents to challenge negative perceptions and to promote the creative use of technologies in the home (Little Scientists Foundation, 2023[84]).

In Scotland (United Kingdom), some teachers encountered a degree of resistance from parents or felt that their work to challenge gender stereotypes or broaden students’ horizons risked being undermined by the messages students were receiving at home. Recognising the role of parents in influencing young people’s career and study choices, some schools conducted surveys to better understand parents’ perceptions on issues relating to gender and used these to inform parental engagement activities. A common approach involved inviting parents to career and study choice activities (SDS Evaluation and Research team, 2018[89]).

Strengthening the role of institutional leaders is critical to foster initiative and collaboration and enable green innovation

It is key that institutional leaders (including school principals, higher education management, and other leaders) understand and value the contribution of their institution to the green transition and that they have the skills to enable or drive innovation within the institution and collaboration beyond it. This may require dedicated professional learning activities.

Data from TALIS 2018 indicate that some school principals already play an important role in stimulating collaboration and innovation among their colleagues. On average across the OECD, some 59.3% of principals reported that they ‘often’ or ‘very often’ take actions to support co-operation among teachers to develop new teaching practices in their school. Furthermore, there was a 9.2 percentage point gap in the share of principals working in schools with a high concentration of socio-economically disadvantaged students who reported that they worked to foster collaboration in this way (66.2%) and those working in more advantaged contexts (57.8%). This suggests that students in disadvantaged schools may be more likely to benefit from this kind of innovation and collaboration (OECD, 2020[83]).

An evaluation of Ireland’s Creative Clusters initiative identified the school principal as a key enabler in embedding change at the school level. Even in schools where another teacher coordinated the cluster, principal buy-in was decisive in ensuring teachers had the time and space to develop their practice collaboratively. Conversely, implementation challenges arose when principals lacked enthusiasm for the initiative. Considering that only 53% of principals surveyed for the evaluation took part in training before the start of the initiative, the report recommends that they receive tailored training early in the academic year and that principals’ attendance at subsequent training days should be a requirement for participation (Morrisey, 2022[92]).

Recognising the role of institutional culture and leadership in promoting sustainability competencies in early childhood education, the Germany’s Little Scientists Foundation now offers tailored workshops for leaders of ECEC centres alongside those already offered to teachers. The workshop support leaders in developing their own position on education for sustainability in their leadership, in planning and implementing relevant projects in the institution, and creating networks with partners beyond the institution. In an evaluation of the workshops, participating leaders noted positive changes in the use of resources within ECEC centres and the use of project-based learning in the classroom, although fewer reported changes in the centre’s organisational structure or the development of external collaborations (Little Scientists Foundation, 2019[86]).

Key messages

Recent data and analysis from these and other policy experiences offer some emerging lessons to help provide all learners with experiences to help them shape the economy in 2024 (see Figure 3.7).

Figure 3.7. Summary of policy lessons for providing all learners with experiences to help them shape the green economy

References

[81] Archer, L. et al. (2020), ASPIRES 2: Young people’s science and career aspirations, age 10–19, UCL Institute of Education, https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10092041/15/Moote_9538%20UCL%20Aspires%202%20report%20full%20online%20version.pdf (accessed on 16 May 2023).

[7] Asai, K., F. Borgonovi and S. Wildi (2022), “Understanding how economic conditions and natural disasters shape environmental attitudes: A cross-country comparison to inform policy making”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 280, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/8e880ea2-en.

[38] Australian Department of Education (2022), National STEM School Education Strategy 2016–2026, https://www.education.gov.au/australian-curriculum/support-science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-stem/national-stem-school-education-strategy-2016-2026 (accessed on 30 June 2023).

[56] Austrian Federal Ministry of Climate Action, Environment, Energy, Mobility, Innovation and Technology (2023), Just Transition Aktionsplan Aus- und Weiterbildung [Just Transition Action Plan], https://www.bmk.gv.at/dam/jcr:639289da-cd79-4b31-a928-0d0f6d2fc268/Just-Transition_Aktionsplan_UA.pdf (accessed on 12 September 2023).

[82] Ávila, L. et al. (2017), “Barriers to innovation and sustainability at universities around the world”, Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 164, pp. 1268-1278, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.07.025.

[70] Blondeel, A. and S. Coussement (2022), Onderzoeksrapport verkennend impactonderzoek STEM-academies [STEM academies exploratory impact study research report], https://lirias.kuleuven.be/retrieve/696359 (accessed on 7 July 2023).

[13] Borgonovi, F. et al. (2023), “The effects of the EU Fit for 55 package on labour markets and the demand for skills”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 297, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/6c16baac-en.

[19] Bowser, G. and C. Cid (2021), “Developing the ecological scientist mindset among underrepresented students in ecology fields”, Ecological Applications, Vol. 31/6, https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2348.

[99] Bus.Trainers (2020), Bus.Trainers launches the European qualification ‘Eco-Trainer of Construction Sector’, in Madrid, http://ecotrainers.eu/wordpress/en/bus-trainers-launches-the-european-qualification-eco-trainer-of-construction-sector-in-madrid/ (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[100] Bus.Trainers (2020), Partnership addresses ‘Eco-Trainer’ training and qualification during the last meeting, http://ecotrainers.eu/wordpress/en/partnership-addresses-the-training-and-qualification-of-eco-trainer-during-their-last-meeting/ (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[97] Bus.Trainers Project (n.d.), Partners, http://ecotrainers.eu/wordpress/en/socios-en/ (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[98] Bus.Trainers Project (n.d.), Phases, http://ecotrainers.eu/wordpress/en/phases/ (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[114] Business Strategy Research Institute (2018), 글로벌프런티어 사업종료 후 연구단별 지속발전 모델 정립 연구 [A Study on Sustainable Development Model of Research Group], National Research Foundation of Korea, https://scienceon.kisti.re.kr/srch/selectPORSrchReport.do?cn=TRKO201900024719&dbt=TRKO (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[79] Camasso, M. and R. Jagannathan (2017), “Nurture thru Nature: Creating natural science identities in populations of disadvantaged children through community education partnership”, The Journal of Environmental Education, Vol. 49/1, pp. 30-42, https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.2017.1357524.

[60] Cedefop (2019), Skills for green jobs: 2018 update: European synthesis report, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/036464 (accessed on 7 July 2023).

[31] CFE Research (2023), Evaluation of Skills Bootcamps; Wave 2 Implementation Report, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1146974/Evaluation_of_Skills_Bootcamps_Wave_2_Implementation_Report_March_2023.pdf (accessed on 3 July 2023).

[72] Curious Minds (2023), 2015 – 2021 Student Outcomes Infographic, https://curiousminds.edu.au/student-outcomes-infographic/ (accessed on 7 July 2023).

[73] Curious Minds (n.d.), 200+ women scientists and schoolgirls closing gender gap in STEM, https://curiousminds.edu.au/200-women-scientists-and-schoolgirls-closing-gender-gap-in-stem/ (accessed on 7 July 2023).

[107] Danish Ministry of Higher Education and Science (n.d.), Faktabilag: Grønne partnerskaber, https://ufm.dk/publikationer/2020/fremtidens-gronne-losninger-strategi-for-investeringer-i-gron-forskning-teknologi-og-innovation/gron-forskningsstrategi/4-faktabilag-gronne-partnerskaber.pdf (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[45] De Coen, A. et al. (2018), Techniek 10 jaar later: Loopbaanpaden en –uitkomsten van STEM-studenten [Engineering 10 years later: Career paths and outcomes of STEM graduates, https://www.ideaconsult.be/images/Eindrapport_VIONA_STEM-loopbanen_dec18_v2.pdf (accessed on 2 July 2023).

[20] DeFelice, A. et al. (2014), “Engaging Underrepresented High School Students in an Urban Environmental and Geoscience Place-Based Curriculum”, Journal of Geoscience Education, Vol. 62/1, pp. 49-60, https://doi.org/10.5408/12-400.1.

[28] Department for Education of England (2022), Sustainability and climate change: a strategy for the education and children’s services systems, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/sustainability-and-climate-change-strategy/sustainability-and-climate-change-a-strategy-for-the-education-and-childrens-services-systems#action-area-2-green-skills-and-careers (accessed on 3 July 2023).

[106] Drozdowski-Strehl, R. (2017), Renewable Energy Integration Demonstrator - Singapore, http://nrel.github.io/iiESI.org/assets/pdfs/2.1a-drozdowski-reids-presentation-singapore-iiesi-london.pdf (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[50] Dzharkinbayeva, G. (2019), STEM-мектеп оқушыларын оқытудың жаңа әдістемесі және әлемдік білім берудің негізгі тренд [STEM is a new method of teaching school students and the main trend of world education], https://bilimainasy.kz/stem-%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BF-%D0%BE%D2%9B%D1%83%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%BE%D2%9B%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%8B%D2%A3-%D0%B6%D0%B0%D2%A3%D0%B0/ (accessed on 3 July 2023).

[39] Education Council of Australia (2021), STEM Education Initiatives Synthesis Report, https://www.education.gov.au/education-ministers-meeting/resources/stem-education-initiatives-synthesis-report (accessed on 30 June 2023).

[74] Education Council of Australia (2021), STEM School Education Interventions: Synthesis report—APPENDIX C (Program Summaries), https://www.education.gov.au/education-ministers-meeting/resources/stem-education-initiatives-synthesis-report (accessed on 7 July 2023).

[88] Education Scotland (2023), Improving gender balance and equalities 3-18, https://education.gov.scot/resources/improving-gender-balance-3-18/ (accessed on 11 July 2023).

[64] Employment and Social Development Canada (2023), About the Youth Employment and Skills Strategy Program, https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/youth-employment-strategy.html (accessed on 7 July 2023).

[67] Employment and Social Development Canada (2020), Horizontal Evaluation of the Youth Employment Strategy - Career Focus Stream, https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/corporate/reports/evaluations/horizontal-career-focus.html (accessed on 7 July 2023).

[25] European Commission (2022), GreenComp The European sustainability competence framework, Publications Office of the European Union, https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC128040 (accessed on 20 October 2023).

[32] Finnish National Agency for Education (2021), Kestävää kehitystä tuetaan ammatillisessa koulutuksessa 3,5 miljoonalla [Sustainable development is supported in vocational training with 3.5 million], https://www.oph.fi/fi/uutiset/2021/kestavaa-kehitysta-tuetaan-ammatillisessa-koulutuksessa-35-miljoonalla (accessed on 3 July 2023).

[71] Flemish Agency for Innovation and Entrepreneurship (n.d.), STEM academies, https://www.vlaio.be/nl/vlaio-netwerk/stemvlaio/stem-academies/stem-academies (accessed on 7 July 2023).

[44] Flemish Department of Education and Training (2015), STEM-Kader voor het Vlaamse onderwijs [STEM Framework for Flemish education], https://www.vlaanderen.be/publicaties/stem-kader-voor-het-vlaamse-onderwijs (accessed on 23 July 2023).

[42] Flemish Department of Work and Social Economy (2021), STEM Agenda 2030, https://publicaties.vlaanderen.be/view-file/46395 (accessed on 30 June 2023).

[43] Flemish Social and Economic Council (2021), Advies STEM-Agenda 2030 [Policy Advice: STEM Agenda 2030], https://publicaties.vlaanderen.be/view-file/46385 (accessed on 30 June 2023).

[93] German Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (n.d.), BBNE-Transfer 2020-2022, https://www.bibb.de/de/121439.php (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[94] German Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (n.d.), Modellversuche Berufsbildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung 2015-2019 [Pilot projects vocational training for sustainable development 2015-2019], https://www.bibb.de/de/42885.php (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[113] Global Green Growth Institute (2015), Korea’s Green Growth Experience: Process, Outcomes and Lessons Learned, Global Green Growth Institute, https://gggi.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/2016-01-Koreas-Green-Growth-Experience-Process-Outcomes-and-Lessons-Learned.pdf (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[11] Goos, M. et al. (2020), Department of Education Review of Literature to Identify a Set of Effective Interventions for Addressing Gender Balance in STEM in Early Years, Primary and Post-Primary Education Settings, https://www.gov.ie/pdf/?file=https://assets.gov.ie/96986/f05f7b2f-e175-442e-85e9-4a2264391843.pdf#page=null (accessed on 2023 May 12).

[66] Government of Canada (2023), About the Science Horizons Youth Internship Program, https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/science-technology/managing/horizons-youth-internship-program/about.html (accessed on 7 July 2023).

[112] Government of Korea (2019), 제3차 녹색성장 5개년 계획 [The 3rd Five-Year Plan for Green Growth], https://www.korea.kr/briefing/pressReleaseView.do?newsId=156332503 (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[102] Government of Singapore (n.d.), A City of Green Possibilities, https://www.greenplan.gov.sg/ (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[101] Government of Singapore (n.d.), Our Key Targets for the Green Plan, https://www.greenplan.gov.sg/targets (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[37] Government of Sweden (2023), Flexibility, adaptability and security in the labour market, https://www.government.se/information-material/2022/04/flexibility-adaptability-and-security/ (accessed on 23 October 2023).

[29] Government of the United Kingdom (2021), Net Zero Strategy: Build Back Greener, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1033990/net-zero-strategy-beis.pdf (accessed on 3 July 2023).

[17] Harrison, M. and T. Royal (2011), “Supporting the T and the E in STEM: 2004-2010.”, Design and Technology Education, Vol. 16/1, https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ916493.

[35] Hevosopisto (n.d.), Hankkeet ja kehittäminen [Projects and development], https://www.hevosopisto.fi/hevosopisto/innovaatiot-ja-kehittaminen/ (accessed on 4 July 2023).

[110] Innovation Fund of Denmark (2023), Missionsdrevne grønne partnerskaber har åbnet for ansøgninger til pulje to [Mission-driven green partnerships have opened applications for pool two], https://innovationsfonden.dk/da/nyhed/missionsdrevne-groenne-partnerskaber-har (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[108] Innovation Fund of Denmark (2022), Innovationsfonden søsætter missionsdrevne grønne partnerskaber [The Innovation Fund launches mission-driven green partnerships], https://innovationsfonden.dk/da/nyhed/innovationsfonden-soesaetter (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[109] Innovation Fund of Denmark (n.d.), Innomissions, https://innovationsfonden.dk/da/p/innomissions (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[30] Institute for Apprenticeships and Technical Education (n.d.), Green Apprenticeships and Technical Education Advisory Panel - GATE-AP, https://www.instituteforapprenticeships.org/about/who-we-are/green-apprenticeships-and-technical-education-advisory-panel/ (accessed on 3 July 2023).

[49] Institute of Legislation and Legal Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2021), Қазақстан Республикасында білім беруді және ғылымды дамытудың 2020 – 2025 жылдарға арналған мемлекеттік бағдарламасын бекіту туралы [On approval of the state program for the development of education and science in the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2020-2025], https://adilet.zan.kz/kaz/docs/P1900000988 (accessed on 3 July 2023).

[27] Inter-Agency Group on Work-based Learning (2022), Work-based Learning and the Green Transition, Publications Office of the European Union, https://www.etf.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2022-10/Work-based%20learning_green%20transition.pdf (accessed on 20 October 2023).

[118] Irish Department of Education (2023), Guidelines for STEM School–Business/Industry Partnerships, https://assets.gov.ie/43641/5df34ac0bbc940d89a748f6699e84dd0.pdf (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[90] Irish Department of Education (2023), STEM Education Implementation Plan - Phase 1 Enhancing Progress Report, https://assets.gov.ie/249005/6fc0c45d-4e83-4329-bbd0-e448a4fbfd9f.pdf (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[10] LaForce, M. et al. (2016), “The eight essential elements of inclusive STEM high schools”, International Journal of STEM Education, Vol. 3/1, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-016-0054-z.

[24] Lambrechts, W. et al. (2013), “The integration of competences for sustainable development in higher education: an analysis of bachelor programs in management”, Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 48, pp. 65-73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.12.034.

[26] Leicht, A. (ed.) (2018), Learning to Transform the World; key competencies in ESD, UNESCO, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261802.

[84] Little Scientists Foundation (2023), Early Computer Science Education - Goals and Success Criteria for Pre-Primary and Primary Education, Verlag Barbara Budrich GmbH, https://www.stiftung-kinder-forschen.de/fileadmin/Redaktion/Englisch/Research/E-Book_Volume_9.pdf (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[86] Little Scientists Foundation (2019), Monitoring Bericht 2018/2019 des stifitung “Haus de Kleinen Forscher” [House of Little Scientists Monitoring Report 2018/2019], Little Scientists Foundation, https://www.stiftung-kinder-forschen.de/fileadmin/Redaktion/4_Ueber_Uns/Evaluation/HDKF_Monitoringbericht_2018-19.pdf (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[85] Little Scientists Foundation (n.d.), More Educational Opportunities for All, https://www.stiftung-kinder-forschen.de/en/about-us/the-foundation (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[12] Lozano, R. et al. (2019), “Teaching Sustainability in European Higher Education Institutions: Assessing the Connections between Competences and Pedagogical Approaches”, Sustainability, Vol. 11/6, p. 1602, https://doi.org/10.3390/su11061602.

[18] Marginson, S. et al. (2013), STEM: Country Comparisons - International comparisons of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education, Australian Council of Learned Academies, https://acola.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/saf02-stem-country-comparisons.pdf (accessed on 15 May 2023).

[4] McGrath, S. and L. Powell (2016), “Skills for sustainable development: Transforming vocational education and training beyond 2015”, International Journal of Educational Development, Vol. 50, pp. 12-19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2016.05.006.

[57] Meinhart, B. et al. (2022), Transformation und “Just Transition” in Österreich [A Just Transition in Austria], Austrian Institute for Economic Research, https://www.wifo.ac.at/jart/prj3/wifo/resources/person_dokument/person_dokument.jart?publikationsid=68029&mime_type=application/pdf (accessed on 12 September 2023).

[115] Metselaar, D. (2023), Update regelingen bouwsteen 2 en 3 [Update regulations building blocks 2 and 3], https://llokatalysator.nl/update-regelingen-bouwsteen-2-en-3/ (accessed on 20 October 2023).

[52] Ministry of Education, Science Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic (n.d.), Štátny vzdelávací program pre základné vzdelávanie (2023) [State educational program for basic education (2023)], https://www.minedu.sk/statny-vzdelavaci-program-pre-zakladne-vzdelavanie-2023/ (accessed on 3 July 2023).

[54] Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic (n.d.), O zmenách vo vzdelávaní [About changes in education], https://vzdelavanie21.sk/zmeny-v-obsahu-a-forme-vzdelavania/ (accessed on 3 July 2023).

[51] Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic (n.d.), Komponent 7: Vzdelávanie pre 21. storočie [Component 7: Education for the 21st century], https://www.minedu.sk/komponent-7-vzdelavanie-pre-21-storocie/ (accessed on 3 July 2023).

[55] Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic (n.d.), Učitelia 21 [Teachers 21], https://vzdelavanie21.sk/ucitelia-pre-21-storocie/ (accessed on 3 July 2023).

[53] Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic (n.d.), Základné princípy zmien [Basic principles of change], https://vzdelavanie21.sk/zmeny-v-obsahu-a-forme-vzdelavania/zakladne-principy/ (accessed on 3 July 2023).

[14] Miranda, G. and G. Larcombe (2012), “Enabling Local Green Growth: Addressing Climate Change Effects on Employment and Local Development”, OECD Local Economic and Employment Development (LEED) Papers, No. 2012/1, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5k9h2q92t2r7-en.

[111] Mission Green Fuels (n.d.), MissionGreenFuels Pool 2 Call, https://missiongreenfuels.dk/pool-2-call/ (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[92] Morrisey, D. (2022), Creative Clusters: A Collaborative approach to Cultivating Creativity in Schools, https://assets.gov.ie/244051/e026b88c-fe4c-4d4c-8f14-2967abeb5efa.pdf (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[9] Mulà, I. et al. (2017), “Catalysing Change in Higher Education for Sustainable Development”, International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, Vol. 18/5, pp. 798-820, https://doi.org/10.1108/ijshe-03-2017-0043.

[95] NachDenkEr Project (n.d.), NachDenkEr: Nachaltiges Denken Erleben [NachDenkEr: Experience sustainable thinking], https://nachdenker-bbne.de/ (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[105] Nanyang Technological University (n.d.), Renewable Energy Integration Demonstrator - Singapore, https://www.ntu.edu.sg/erian/research-capabilities/renewable-energy-integration-demonstrator---singapore (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[116] National Lifelong Learning Catalyst (n.d.), LLO-Katalysator [LLL Catalyst], https://llokatalysator.nl/ (accessed on 20 October 2023).

[65] Natural Resources Canada (2023), Green Jobs in Natural Resources, https://natural-resources.canada.ca/climate-change/canadas-green-future/green-jobs/87 (accessed on 7 July 2023).

[61] New Zealand Ministry for the Environment (n.d.), Emissions reduction plan, https://environment.govt.nz/what-government-is-doing/areas-of-work/climate-change/emissions-reduction-plan/ (accessed on 11 September 2023).

[62] New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2023), Equitable Transitions Strategy, https://www.mbie.govt.nz/business-and-employment/economic-development/equitable-transitions-strategy/ (accessed on 11 September 2023).

[63] New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (n.d.), Terms of Reference – Equitable Transitions Strategy for Aotearoa New Zealand, https://www.mbie.govt.nz/dmsdocument/25559-terms-of-reference-equitable-transitions-strategy-for-aotearoa-new-zealand (accessed on 11 September 2023).

[1] OECD (2023), Education Policy Outlook National Survey for Comparative Policy Analysis 2023: Empowering All Learners to go Green.

[2] OECD (2023), Job Creation and Local Economic Development 2023: Bridging the Great Green Divide, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/21db61c1-en.

[3] OECD (2023), Net Zero+: Climate and Economic Resilience in a Changing World, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/da477dda-en.

[8] OECD (2022), Declaration on Building Equitable Societies Through Education, OECD/LEGAL/0485, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0485.

[21] OECD (2022), Education Policy Outlook 2022: Transforming Pathways for Lifelong Learners, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c77c7a97-en.

[15] OECD (2021), Education Policy Outlook 2021: Shaping Responsive and Resilient Education in a Changing World, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/75e40a16-en.

[83] OECD (2020), TALIS 2018 Results (Volume II): Teachers and School Leaders as Valued Professionals, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/19cf08df-en.

[77] OECD (2019), TALIS 2018 Results (Volume I): Teachers and School Leaders as Lifelong Learners, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1d0bc92a-en.

[16] OECD (2019), Tranformative Competencies for 2030, OECD Publishing, https://www.oecd.org/education/2030-project/teaching-and-learning/learning/transformative-competencies/Transformative_Competencies_for_2030_concept_note.pdf (accessed on 20 October 2023).

[5] OECD/Cedefop (2015), Green skills and innovation for inclusive growth, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264239296-en.

[58] Parken, A. et al. (2023), An Equal and Just Transition to Net Zero, Cardiff University, https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/157749/.

[91] Professional Development Service for Teachers (n.d.), Schools Excellence Fund – Digital Clusters, https://www.pdsttechnologyineducation.ie/projects-initiatives/digital-clusters/ (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[6] Ranworth, K., S. Wykes and S. Bass (2014), Securing social justice in green economies: A review and ten considerations for policymakers, IIED, https://www.iied.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/migrate/16578IIED.pdf (accessed on 12 May 2023).

[78] Redman, E., A. Wiek and A. Redman (2018), “Continuing Professional Development in Sustainability Education for K-12 Teachers: Principles, Programme, Applications, Outlook”, Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, Vol. 12/1, pp. 59-80, https://doi.org/10.1177/2455133318777182.

[23] Rieckmann, M. (2012), “Future-oriented higher education: Which key competencies should be fostered through university teaching and learning?”, Futures, Vol. 44/2, pp. 127-135, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2011.09.005.

[76] Robinson, D. and V. Salvestrini (2020), The impact of interventions for widening access to higher education: A review of the evidence, Education Policy Institute, https://epi.org.uk/publications-and-research/impact-of-interventions-for-widening-access-to-he/ (accessed on 11 September 2023).

[96] Rothe, M. et al. (2022), Förderschwerpunkt „Berufsbildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung im Transfer für Ausbildungspersonal [Funding focus “Vocational training for sustainable development for training staff], https://www.bibb.de/dokumente/ablage/Abschlussbericht_NachDenkEr.pdf (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[41] Science by Doing (n.d.), Science by Doing, https://www.sciencebydoing.edu.au/ (accessed on 2023 June 2023).

[87] Scottish Government (2022), STEM Education and Training Strategy: Refresh, Scottish Government, https://www.gov.scot/publications/stem-education-training-strategy-refresh/ (accessed on 11 July 2023).

[89] SDS Evaluation and Research team (2018), Review of Improving Balance Scotland, Skills Development Scotland, https://www.skillsdevelopmentscotland.co.uk/media/44705/review-of-improving-gender-balance-2018.pdf (accessed on 11 July 2023).

[103] Singapore Ministry of Education (2022), Strengthening Our Contributions Towards the Green Economy and Empowering the Next Generation of Sustainability Leaders, https://www.moe.gov.sg/news/press-releases/20220308-strengthening-our-contributions-towards-the-green-economy-and-empowering-the-next-generation-of-sustainability-leaders (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[75] South Australia Department of Education (n.d.), STEM scholarships for high school students under-represented in science and mathematics, https://www.education.sa.gov.au/students/awards-and-scholarships/stem-scholarships-high-school-students-under-represented-science-and-mathematics (accessed on 7 July 2023).

[117] STEM Partnerships Forum (2018), Optimising STEM Industry-School Partnerships: Inspiring Australia’s Next Generation, Education Council, https://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/sites/default/files/2019-11/optimising_stem_industry-school_partnerships_-_final_report.pdf (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[36] Swedish Ministry of Education (2023), Framtidens yrkeshögskola –stabil effektiv och hållbar [Higher VET of the Future – Stable, Efficient and Sustainable], Government of Sweden, https://www.regeringen.se/contentassets/995fdff0970f4fb4a04aa28e5dcaf3e8/framtidens-yrkeshogskola-stabil-effektiv-och-hallbar-sou-202331.pdf (accessed on 29 September 2023).

[68] Swedish National Agency for Education (2023), Tekniksprånget 2022 [The Technolog Leap in 2022], Swedish National Agency for Education, https://www.skolverket.se/publikationsserier/regeringsuppdrag/2023/teknikspranget-2022#:~:text=Skolverket%20betalade%20ut%20totalt%2015,ing%C3%A5tt%20ett%20avtal%20med%20Kungl. (accessed on 2 October 2023).

[69] Swedish National Agency for Education (2022), Utvärdering av Tekniksprånget [Evaluation of the Technology Leap], Swedish National Agency for Education, https://www.skolverket.se/publikationsserier/regeringsuppdrag/2022/utvardering-av-teknikspranget.

[104] Temasek Polytechnic (n.d.), Integrative Built Environment Sector, https://www.tp.edu.sg/research-and-industry/centres-of-excellence/centres-under-school-of-engineering/integrative-built-environment-centre-ibec.html (accessed on 12 July 2023).

[47] United Nations Development Programme (2023), Inspiring Change: Skillathon for Women Scientists Held in Astana, https://www.undp.org/kazakhstan/news/inspiring-change-skillathon-women-scientists-held-astana (accessed on 24 July 2023).

[48] United Nations Development Programme (2023), UNDP in Kazakhstan and Nazarbayev University join efforts to promote gender equality in academic settings through alliance, https://www.undp.org/kazakhstan/news/undp-kazakhstan-and-nazarbayev-university-join-efforts-promote-gender-equality-academic-settings-through-alliance (accessed on 24 July 2023).

[46] United Nations Development Programme (2021), UNDP is supporting STEM education in the regions of Kazakhstan, https://www.undp.org/kazakhstan/news/undp-supporting-stem-education-regions-kazakhstan (accessed on 24 July 2023).

[40] University of Technology, Sydney (2018), Science by Doing Stage 4 (2016 to 2018): Final Report, https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/rest/bitstreams/e06beb9f-d9f7-4222-b258-a5f82a02b728/retrieve (accessed on 2023 June 2023).

[34] VASKI Project (2023), Pedagogiset ratkaisut ja oppimisympäristöt [Pedagogical solutions and learning environments], https://vaski.info/pedagogiset-ratkaisut/ (accessed on 4 July 2023).

[33] VASKI Project (2023), VASKI – Vastuullinen ja kestävä ammatillinen koulutus [VASKI – Responsible and sustainable vocational training], https://vaski.info/ (accessed on 4 July 2023).

[59] Welsh Government (2023), Stronger, Fairer, Greener Wales: Net Zero Skills Action Plan, https://www.gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2023-02/net-zero-skills-action-plan.pdf (accessed on 7 July 2023).

[22] Wiek, A., L. Withycombe and C. Redman (2011), “Key competencies in sustainability: a reference framework for academic program development”, Sustainability Science, Vol. 6/2, pp. 203-218, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-011-0132-6.

[80] Wolfe, B. and E. Riggs (2017), “Macrosystem Analysis of Programs and Strategies to Increase Underrepresented Populations in the Geosciences”, Journal of Geoscience Education, Vol. 65/4, pp. 577-593, https://doi.org/10.5408/17-256.1.

Featured topics

Agriculture and fisheries

Climate change

Development

Digital

Economy

Education and skills

Employment

Environment

Finance and investment

Governance

Health

Industry, business and entrepreneurship

Regional, rural and urban development

Science, technology and innovation

Society

Taxation

Trade

Energy

Nuclear energy

Transport

Featured topics

Agriculture and fisheries

Climate change

Development

Digital

Economy

Education and skills

Employment

Environment

Finance and investment

Governance

Health

Industry, business and entrepreneurship

Regional, rural and urban development

Science, technology and innovation

Society

Taxation

Trade

Energy

Nuclear energy

Transport

Countries A - C

Countries D - I

Countries J - M

Countries N - R

Countries S - T

Countries U - Z

Regional and global engagement

Countries

Countries A - C

Countries D - I

Countries J - M

Countries N - R

Countries S - T

Countries U - Z

Regional and global engagement

Publications

Publications

Featured publications

Data

Data

Featured data

News & Events

News & Events

Featured Events

About OECD

About

Engage with us

Work with us

Featured topics

Agriculture and fisheries

Climate change

Development

Digital

Economy

Education and skills

Employment

Environment

Finance and investment