Exposure to ambient PM2.5 and mortality rates from PM2.5 and other ambient air pollutants in EaP countries largely exceed the OECD and EU averages. Exposure in Azerbaijan and mortality in Armenia and Ukraine are the highest.
Due to challenges around health infrastructure, cost of care, and other factors, the welfare cost of premature mortalities in EaP countries dramatically exceeds OECD and EU averages. Georgia, Ukraine, Armenia, and Azerbaijan are two to three times the OECD average, with the highest—Armenia—amounting to approximately 14% of GDP in 2020.
EaP countries are relatively exposed to extreme temperatures with significant variance due to their diverse landscapes. Among the EaP countries, Azerbaijan is the most exposed to hot summer days, with nearly 13% of the population exposed over eight weeks of hot summer days (maximum temperature is greater than 35°C). About one-third of the population in Ukraine is exposed from 6 to 8 weeks of icing days (maximum temperature less than 0°C), while only over 8% of the Armenian population is exposed to over eight weeks of icing days.
Among the EaP countries, Georgia is the most exposed to river flooding risks, with over 13% of the population at risk of a flood event within ten years and over 14% at risk of a flood event within 20 years.
Wildfires are also a threat in EaP countries, with Moldova having the highest risk, as over 73% of its tree-covered area is exposed to this risk.
Environment at a Glance in the EU Eastern Partnership Countries
5. Environmental quality of life
Key messages
Context and policy challenges
The exposure to pollution and environmental risks in the EaP countries combines factors such as industrialisation, urbanisation, geographical location, and environmental policies. The EaP countries are particularly exposed to air pollution from vehicle emissions and industrial sources. Water is affected by untreated sewage, industrial discharges, and outdated water infrastructures.
Due to its location and geographical features, such as mountains and arid regions, temperature variation changes in the EaP region tend to be higher than in OECD countries and have increased in the last forty years. This has led to a proportional increase in climate-related hazards requiring close monitoring, though these hazards vary by country. Ukraine, Georgia, and Moldova are particularly at risk from flooding, while Armenia and Azerbaijan’s relative aridity leads to elevated temperature exposure and drought. Limited resources and the legacy of past industrial practices make addressing these issues in the EaP region complex and require long-term processes.
A deteriorated environment reduces the quality of life for inhabitants and increases the related costs for governments (shorter life expectancy, higher healthcare costs, and lower labour productivity). Air and water pollution, exposure to hazardous substances and noise, and indirect factors such as climate change and biodiversity loss are some environmental conditions that affect the quality of human life. Air pollution poses the greatest environmental health risk worldwide. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is the most serious pollutant from a human health perspective. Reducing risks to human health from degraded air quality is central to improving people’s well-being.
The indicators in this section reflect how environmental conditions and environmental risks interact with people’s quality of life and well-being. They show the extent to which income growth is accompanied (or not) by a rise in overall well-being. Human exposure to pollution and environmental risks (natural disasters, technological and chemical risks), the associated effects on human health and quality of life, and related health costs and impacts on human capital and labour productivity. They also show access to environmental services and amenities (clean water, sanitation, green space, public transport).
Box 5.1. OECD measurement framework for risks, associated with the climate change.
The quality of human life is also affected by indirect factors such as climate change. To track the most significant impacts of climate change and inform adaptation policies, the OECD has developed a database and a first set of indicators to monitor climate-related hazards and exposure to these hazards (Maes et al., 2022[39]). The indicator set is based on the IPCC conceptualisation of climate risk, which considers climate-related hazard, exposure, and vulnerability as the key dimensions.
Source: IPCC (2014), Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge.
Main trends and recent developments
Currently, exposure to ambient PM2.5 and mortality rates from exposure in EaP countries largely exceed the OECD and EU averages, with exposure in Azerbaijan and mortality in Armenia and Ukraine notably being the highest. Elevated exposure risks come from various sources, including emissions from older motor vehicles, pollution from power generation, hydrocarbon production (Azerbaijan) and heavy industry (Ukraine). Rising GDP levels and economic diversification should hopefully drive these trends downwards over time.
In addition to significant exposure and mortality rates, the welfare cost of premature mortalities from exposure is also far above EU and OECD averages. As exposure and mortality rates are addressed, welfare costs should also begin to fall, pointing to economic, environmental, and health benefits.
EaP countries are relatively exposed to temperature extremes with significant variance due to their diverse landscapes. Azerbaijan is the most exposed to hot summer days, with nearly 13% of the population exposed over eight weeks of hot summer days (maximum temperature is greater than 35°C). Ukraine has significant variation across the country due to its size, with about one-third of the population exposed from 6 to 8 weeks of icing days (maximum temperature less than 0°C). By contrast, only over 8% of the Armenian population is exposed to over eight weeks of icing days.
Exposure to climate-related risks also differs widely - among the EaP countries, Georgia is the most exposed to river flooding risks, with over 13% of the population at risk of a flood event within ten years and over 14% of the population at risk of a flood event within 20 years. Wildfires are also a threat in EaP countries, with Moldova having the highest risk as over 73% of its tree-covered area is exposed to this risk. Nevertheless, the EaP countries continue to address environmental risks and pollution through various means, including environmental regulations, investments in cleaner technologies, upgrading water treatment facilities and international cooperation, such as the principles outlined in the Strategy of State Environmental Policy of Ukraine 2030, which aims to reduce environmental risks to minimise their impact on public health.
Available indicators
Mean population exposure to PM2.5 and other selected outdoor pollutants, related premature mortality and associated welfare costs
Population with access to improved drinking water sources and sanitation
Temperature change
Population exposure to hot days, river flooding, icing days and forest exposure to wildfire danger