Environment at a Glance Indicators

Biological resources and biodiversity

Context

Issues at stake

Biodiversity and ecosystem services are integral elements of natural capital. Biodiversity, which encompasses species, ecosystems, and genetic diversity, provides invaluable ecosystem services (including raw materials for many sectors of the economy) and plays an essential role in maintaining life-support systems and quality of life.

The loss of biodiversity is a key concern nationally and globally. It reduces ecosystem resilience and increases vulnerability to threats such as the negative impacts of climate change. Pressures on biodiversity can be physical (e.g. habitat alteration and fragmentation through changes in land use and sea use, changes in land cover, over-exploitation of natural resources), chemical (toxic contamination, acidification, oil spills, other pollution from human activities) or biological (e.g. alteration of population dynamics and species structure through invasive alien species or the commercial use of wildlife resources). Other factors that play a role are changes in climate and weather conditions.

Policy challenges

The main challenge is to ensure effective conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. This implies strengthening the degree of protection of species, habitats and terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems, including oceans. Strategies include eliminating illegal exploitation and trade of endangered species, eliminating illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, putting in place ambitious policy mixes (regulatory approaches, economic instruments, and other information and voluntary approaches); and integrating biodiversity concerns into economic and sectoral policies. Biodiversity preservation and restoration also requires reforming and removing environmentally harmful subsidies and strengthening the role of biodiversity-relevant taxes, fees and charges, as well as other economic instruments such as payments for ecosystem services, biodiversity offsets and tradable permits (such as transferable quotas for fisheries).

Measuring progress and performance

Environmental performance can be assessed against domestic objectives and international goals and commitments. Biodiversity is also an integral part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (New York, September 2015) under Goal 15 “Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss” and Goal 14 “Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development”.

The main international agreement on biodiversity is the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity. Other relevant international agreements are: the 1979 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, the 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, the 1971 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, the 1979 Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats and the Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing that entered into force in June 2016.

Indicator groups

• Land use: share of land area by type of use; and share of agricultural area under organic farming.

• Forest resources: share of forest area naturally regenerating versus planted forest; intensity of use of forest resources.

• Threatened species and protected areas: percentage of threatened mammals, vascular plants, freshwater fish, birds and amphibians, and protected areas by management categories.

• Taxes relevant for biodiversity: revenue raised and tax base structure.

Land use

Key messages

• In the OECD area, the shares of major land use types has remained quite stable over the past 30 years. However, this masks large differences across countries, e.g. from a lost of 3.6 percentage points of forest area in Colombia between 2000 and 2022, to a gain of 4.4 points in Italy over the same period.

• The area under organic agriculture has increased since 2005 in the vast majority of OECD member and accession countries, albeit with large differences.

Main trends and recent developments

During the past three decades, the shares of major land use types has remained quite stable in the OECD area, with about 11% of arable land and permanent crops, 23% of permanent meadows and pastures, 33% of forest area and 33% of other area types. OECD area values mask large differences across countries: during 2000-2022, from almost 10 percentage points lost in Czechia for the share of arable land and permanent crops to 6.2 points gained in Latvia; from 14 percentage points lost in Greece for permanent meadows and pastures to 7.6 points more in Portugal; from 3.6 percentage points lost Colombia for forest to 4.4 points more in Italy.

Within these major land type uses, some specific uses are more beneficial to biodiversity, such as the agricultural area under organic farming (less use of chemical inputs), the cover of cropland (richer soils, vegetation cover attracting pollinators etc) and the share of naturally regenerating forest (more diverse and resilient than planted forests).

The share of area under organic agriculture has increased since 2005 in the vast majority of OECD member countries, albeit with large differences: from less than 0.1 percentage points more in Iceland to 17.6 points in Estonia. These shares vary from 0.2% of agricultural land in Colombia to 27% in Austria in 2021.

Indicators

Comparability and interpretation

Changes in the use of land are a relatively good proxy to monitor pressures on ecosystems and biodiversity. However, results should be interpreted with caution and complemented with land cover indicators, especially transition matrices. For example, an increase in cropland may come at the expense of naturally vegetated areas or, inversely, a planted forest may replace an intensively farmed land. Indicators of change can hide significant modifications to ecosystems and natural habitats, and should be complemented with information on the state of ecosystems.

For further details see the metadata in the source databases.

Forest resources

Key messages

• Many forests are threatened by degradation, fragmentation and conversion to other land types. Demand for wood to reach renewable energy targets plays an important role in the commercial exploitation of forests.

• Forests are unevenly distributed. A handful of the most forest-rich countries account for the bulk of the world’s forest resources. OECD countries account for about 27% of the world’s forest area.

• Since 2000, just over a third of OECD countries witnessed an increase in naturally regenerating forest. By contrast, just over a half of these countries saw an increase of planted forest during the same period.

• At national level, most OECD countries show a sustainable use of their forest resources. In forests available for wood supply, most countries do not over-harvest their resources, albeit with large differences across countries.

Main trends and recent developments

Many forest resources are threatened by overexploitation, fragmentation, degradation of environmental quality and conversion to other types of land use. The main pressures result from human activities, including agriculture expansion, transport infrastructure development, unsustainable forestry, air pollution, climate change and intentional burning of forests. Demand for wood to reach renewable energy targets plays an important role in the commercial exploitation of forests.

Forests are unevenly distributed. A handful of the most forest-rich countries account for the bulk of the world’s forest resources. OECD countries account for about 27% of the world’s forest area. Since 1990, the area of forests and wooded land has remained stable or has slightly increased in most OECD countries at about a third of land area), but it has been decreasing at world level due in part to continued deforestation in tropical countries, often to provide land for agriculture, grazing and logging.

Since 2000, just over a third of OECD countries witnessed an increase in the share of naturally regenerating forests. However, in the majority of OECD countries, this share is greater than 50%, and greater than 80% in 11 countries. By contrast, just over a half of these countries saw an increase of planted forest during the same period. The share of planted forests is much more variable: from 0.2% in Mexico to 95% Czechia in 2021.

Most OECD countries show a sustainable use of their forest resources. In forests available for wood supply, most do not over-harvest their resources, maintaining the intensity of use below 100%. However, there is significant variation among and within countries. Since the 1990s, intensity of use of forest resources has increased in some countries for which longer trends are available. This is partly due to the use of wood as biomass for energy. Korea shows a relatively low intensity because its forests are young and grow rapidly (due to massive reforestation programmes since 1973).

Indicators

Comparability and interpretation

The intensity of use of forest resources provides insights into quantitative aspects of forest resources. It present national averages that may conceal important variations among forests. It should be read with information on forest quality (e.g. species diversity, including tree and non-tree species; forest degradation; forest fragmentation) and be complemented with data on forest management practices and protection measures. Data on the intensity of use of forest resources can be derived from forest accounts and from international forest statistics and the FAO/UNECE Forest Resource Assessments for most OECD countries, although differences in the variables monitored result in interpretation difficulties. Historical data often lack comparability or are not available over longer periods.

For further details see the metadata in the source databases.

Threatened species and protected areas

Key messages

• Pressures on biodiversity are increasing. A high percentage of species are threatened, particularly in countries with high population density, and a high level of concentration of human activities.

• In the OECD area, amphibians, birds and reptiles are on average more threatened than plants, mammals, invertebrates and fish.

• Protected areas are growing in all OECD countries and now cover on average 16% of land and 21% of marine areas (compared to respectively 10% and 3% in 2000).

• Only 9 and 7 OECD countries would meet or almost meet the Global Biodiversity Framework Target 3 to protect 30% of terrestrial and marine areas, respectively, highlighting further policy actions are needed to achieve these targets.

Main trends and recent developments

Pressures on biodiversity are increasing. Many natural ecosystems have been degraded, limiting the services they provide, and many animal and plant species are threatened by habitat alteration or loss, both within and outside protected areas (e.g. on farms and in forests). In most OECD countries, the number of animal and plant species identified as endangered is increasing, particularly in countries with a high population density, and a high level of concentration of human activities. Amphibians, birds and reptiles are on average more threatened than plants, mammals, invertebrates and fish. But specialist birds have declined by nearly 30% in 40 years, reflecting habitats degradation. The largest declines occurred in grasslands and arid lands in North America, and in farmed lands in Europe.

Protected areas are growing in all OECD countries. They cover on average 16% of the land area and 22% of marine areas (i.e. exclusive economic zones - EEZ), compared to respectively 10% and 3% in 2000. However, biodiversity outcomes and actual protection levels remain difficult to evaluate, as protected areas change over time: new areas are designated, boundaries are revised, and some sites may be destroyed or changed by pressures from economic development or natural processes. Environmental performance depends both on the designation of the area and on management effectiveness.

The Convention on Biological Diversity’s Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF)—adopted in December 2022—reinvigorated ambitions to half and reverse biodiversity loss by 2030. GBF Target 3 states to ‘ensure and enable that by 2030 at least 30 per cent of terrestrial, inland water, and of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular important for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, are effectively conserved and managed‘. In 2022, around 9 OECD countries would meet or almost meet GBF Target 3 to protect at least 30% of their terrestrial land area, while approx. 7 OECD countries would meet or almost meet this target for the protection of marine area. This highlights that further policy actions are needed to achieve these targets.

There are large variations among countries in the extent and the management objectives of terrestrial protected areas. These can be partly explained by differences in geography, ecology, and the pre-existing patterns of human settlement in the territory. Some countries (e.g. Chile, Iceland, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Norway) have designated proportionally large areas as strict nature reserves, national parks and wilderness areas (IUCN management categories I-II). Some countries (e.g. Belgium, Israel, Luxembourg and New Zealand) use these designations to establish habitats and species management areas (categories III and IV) and others (e.g. France, Germany, Greece, Poland, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia) for the preservation of cultural heritage or the promotion of sustainable resource use (categories V and VI). Still other countries use mainly regional and international designations such as the European Natura 2000 regional network (e.g. Ireland).

Indicators

Comparability and interpretation

Data on threatened species are available for all OECD countries with varying degrees of completeness. The number of species known or assessed does not always accurately reflect the number of species in existence, and the definitions that should follow IUCN standards are applied with varying degrees of rigour in countries. Historical data are generally not comparable or not available. For many of the incompletely evaluated species groups, assessment efforts have focused on species that are likely to be threatened; therefore any percentage of threatened species reported for these groups would be heavily biased (i.e., the % threatened species would likely be an overestimate). For some countries, data include extinct species. For some countries, birds’ data refer to breeding species only.

Data on protected areas are available for all OECD countries. The definitions, although harmonised by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, may vary among countries. The extent, and management types, of terrestrial and marine protected areas can indicate countries’ efforts to safeguard habitats and species as well as landscapes shaped by human-environment interactions that are valued for cultural or other reasons. Protected areas are not always representative of national biodiversity or sufficiently connected. Indicators on the extent of protected areas do not reflect the effectiveness of the management of these areas.

For further details see the metadata in the source databases.

Taxes relevant for biodiversity

Key messages

• In the OECD area, biodiversity-related taxes raised USD 10 billion in 2022, representing only about 1% of environmentally related tax revenue.

• Revenue from biodiversity-related taxes is raised primarily from taxing pollution, followed by resources and transport taxes, while energy tax base plays a minor role in generating revenue.

• Overall, the share of environmentally related tax revenue (ERTR) continues to decline in OECD countries, amounting to 4% of total tax revenue in 2022, down from 5.9% in early 2000s. Compared to GDP, ERTR is also decreasing and reached 0.017% of GDP in 2022, down from 0.018% in early 2000s.

Main trends and recent developments

In the OECD area, biodiversity-related taxes raised USD 10 billion in 2022, representing a small but increasing share of all environmentally related tax revenue (1.3% in 2022). This share has only marginally increased since the 2000s. The bulk of revenue coming from taxes relevant to biodiversity is raised from taxing pollution (0.34%), resources (0.41%), and transport (0.27%) while energy tax base plays a minor role in generating revenue.

Overall, the share of environmentally related tax revenue (ERTR) continues to decline in OECD countries, amounting to 4% of total tax revenue in 2022, down from 5.9% in early 2000s. Compared to GDP, ERTR is also decreasing and reached 0.017% of GDP in 2022. The decreasing trend is a combination of factors, namely, that tax rates are typically defined in physical units (e.g. per litre) and hence are set in nominal terms. Without inflation adjustment, these rates decrease in real terms over time. While countries such as Denmark, the Netherlands and Sweden have implemented such adjustments, most OECD countries do not yet apply inflation adjustments to environmentally related taxes. Another factor contributing to this trend is the increase in crude oil prices up until mid-2014, which triggered substitution away from motor fuel use, also making adjustments in nominal tax rates on motor fuels politically difficult. Yet some countries, such as Slovenia, Costa Rica, Türkiye and Estonia strengthened the role of environmentally related taxes and have tripled their share of tax revenue since 2000.

Indicators

Comparability and interpretation

The indicators on environmentally related taxes should not be used to assess the “environmental friendliness” of the tax systems. For such analysis, additional information, describing the economic and taxation structure of each country, is required. Moreover, a number of environmentally related taxes can have important environmental impacts even if they raise little (or no) revenue. In addition, revenue from fees and charges, and from royalties related to resource management, is not included.

Comparisons of ERTRs in OECD countries provide a useful starting point for analysing the impact of environmental taxation, however, comparing only the levels of revenue does not provide the full picture of a country’s environmental policy, as it does not provide information on the levels of tax rates or the exemptions applied. Other parts of the OECD PINE database, including information on tax rates and exemptions, allows deeper assessment of the environmental impacts of these taxes. In addition, governments may choose to implement environmental policy using a range of other instruments, including fees and charges, expenditures (both direct and subsidies) and regulation, some of which are also detailed in the PINE database (see http://oe.cd/pine for information on the use of alternative instruments in countries).

For further details see the metadata in the source databases.

Glossary

Agricultural land: Land used for cultivation of crops and animal husbandry. The total of areas under ''Cropland'' and ''Permanent meadows and pastures.''

Agriculture area under organic agriculture: Agriculture area certified organic and/or in conversion to organic.

Arable land: Land used for cultivation of crops in rotation with fallow, meadows and pastures within cycles of up to five years. The total of areas under "Temporary crops,'' ''Temporary meadows and pastures,'' and ''Temporary fallow.'' Arable land does not include land that is potentially cultivable but is not cultivated.

Biodiversity-related tax revenue: Revenue raised from taxes and auctioning of tradable permits directed at biodiversity. These include specific taxes on i) energy products for water transport purposes; ii) vehicles and vessels for water transport (e.g. one-off or recurrent taxes on ownerships and use of boats); iii) discharges into water bodies, soil contamination, etc. and iv) resource extraction such as fishing or hunting taxes, forestry taxes, water abstraction, revenue from auctioning of individual transferable quotas for fisheries.

The information on taxes and the associated tax revenue is extracted from the OECD Policy Instruments for the Environment (PINE) database (http://oe.cd/pine). The PINE database, contains quantitative and qualitative information on over 4500 policy instruments in 145 countries worldwide. Policy instruments are tagged into 22 environmental domains that represent the focal issues (environmental externalities). Instruments can have both a direct and an indirect effect on several environmental domains; however, only the domain to which the instrument has a direct effect is considered. For more details, see the methodology for Environmental domain tagging the OECD PINE database.

Forest land: Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 metres and a canopy cover of more than 10 per cent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. Excludes land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use.

• Forest land is determined both by the presence of trees and by the absence of other predominant land uses. The trees should be able to reach a minimum height of 5 metres in situ.

• Includes areas with young trees that have not yet reached but that are expected to reach a canopy cover of 10 percent and tree height of 5 metres. It also includes areas that are temporarily unstocked owing to clear-cutting as part of a forest management practice or natural disasters, and that are expected to be regenerated within five years. Local conditions may, in exceptional cases, justify the use of a longer time frame.

• Includes forest roads, firebreaks and other small open areas.

• May include forest land in national parks, nature reserves and other protected areas, such as those of specific environmental, scientific, historical, cultural or spiritual interest.

• Includes windbreaks, shelter belts and corridors of trees with an area of more than 0.5 hectares and width of more than 20 metres.

• Includes abandoned shifting cultivation land with a regeneration of trees that have, or is expected to reach, a canopy cover of 10 percent and tree height of 5 metres.

• Includes areas with mangroves in tidal zones, regardless of whether this area is classified as land area or not.

• Includes areas with bamboo and palms provided that land use, height and canopy cover criteria are met.

• Some agroforestry systems such as the taungya system, where crops are grown only during the first years of the forest rotation should be classified as forest.

• Excludes: tree stands in agricultural production systems, such as fruit-tree plantations (→Permanent crops), oil palm plantations, rubber and Christmas trees (→Permanent crops) and agroforestry systems when crops are grown under tree cover.

Intensity of use of forest resources (timber): Actual harvest or fellings (of forest available for wood supply) over annual productive capacity. Annual productive capacity is either a calculated value, such as annual allowable cut, or an estimate of annual growth for existing stock. It should be noted that the national averages presented here may conceal variations among forests.

Naturally regenerating forest: Forest predominantly composed of trees established through natural regeneration.

• Includes forests for which it is not possible to distinguish whether planted or naturally regenerated.

• Includes forests with a mix of naturally regenerated native tree species and planted/seeded trees, and where the naturally regenerated trees are expected to constitute the major part of the growing stock at stand maturity.

• Includes coppice from trees originally established through natural regeneration.

• Includes naturally regenerated trees of introduced species.

Permanent crops: Land cultivated with long-term crops which do not have to be replanted for several years (such as cocoa and coffee), land under trees and shrubs producing flowers (such as roses and jasmine), and nurseries (except those for forest trees, which should be classified under "Forestry"). Permanent meadows and pastures are excluded from Permanent crops.

Permanent meadows and pastures: Land used permanently (five years or more) to grow herbaceous forage crops through cultivation or naturally (wild prairie or grazing land). Permanent meadows and pastures on which trees and shrubs are grown should be recorded under this heading only if the growing of forage crops is the most important use of the area. Measures may be taken to keep or increase productivity of the land (i.e., use of fertilizers, mowing or systematic grazing by domestic animals.) This class includes:

• Grazing in wooded areas (agroforestry areas, for example);

• Grazing in shrubby zones (heath, maquis, garigue);

• Grassland in the plain or low mountain areas used for grazing: land crossed during transhumance where the animals spend a part of the year (approximately 100 days) without returning to the holding in the evening: mountain and subalpine meadows and similar; and steppes and dry meadows used for pasture.

Planted Forest: Forest predominantly composed of trees established through planting and/or deliberate seeding. In this context, predominantly means that the planted/seeded trees are expected to constitute more than 50 percent of the growing stock at maturity. Includes coppice from trees that were originally planted or seeded.

Terrestrial and marine protected areas as percentage of total land and of exclusive economic zone (EEZ): Protected areas are areas of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means. The data refer to the World Conservation Union (IUCN) management categories I-VI. National classifications may differ. The data cover areas under the management categories:

• I (strict nature reserves and wilderness areas),

• II (national parks),

• III (natural monument or feature)

• IV (habitat or species management area),

• V (protected landscape or seascape) and

• VI (protected area with sustainable use of natural resources).

Areas nationally/internationally designated without any IUCN category assigned are also included. This category includes regional and international designations such as the European Natura 2000 network.

In general, under the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea the EEZ of a country extends 200 nautical miles from the coastline, or to the mid-point between coastlines where the EEZ of different countries would otherwise overlap.

Threatened species: The number of threatened species compared to the number of known or assessed species. “Threatened” refers to the categories of “endangered”, “critically endangered” and “vulnerable” species (i.e. species in danger of extinction and species soon likely to be in danger of extinction), as defined by the IUCN.

Data sources

FAO, “Land use”, FAOSTAT (database), https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/RL

OECD, "Biodiversity: Threatened species", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00605-en.

OECD, "Biodiversity: Protected areas", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/5fa661ce-en.

OECD, "Environmental policy: Environmentally related tax revenue", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/df563d69-en

OECD, "Land and forest: Depletion and growth of forest resources", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00600-en.

OECD, "Green growth: Green growth indicators", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00665-en.

OECD, "Land use", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/8ecc9c9c-en.

OECD, Policy Instruments for the Environment (PINE) database, http://oe.cd/pinedatabase

References and further reading

BirdLife International, https://www.birdlife.org/

Biodiversity Indicators Partnership (BIP) https://www.bipindicators.net/

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), https://www.cbd.int/

CBD, The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) https://www.cbd.int/gbf

Chhun, B., et al. (2024), "Environmental domain tagging in the OECD PINE database", OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 232, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/be984b0a-en

FAO, 2020, Global Forest Resources Assessment, https://www.fao.org/forest-resources-assessment/2020/e#:~:text=The%20rate%20of%20net%20forest%20loss%20declined%20from%207.8%20million,the%20rate%20of%20forest%20expansion. .

Haščič, I. and A. Mackie (2018), "Land Cover Change and Conversions: Methodology and Results for OECD and G20 Countries", OECD Green Growth Papers, No. 2018/04, OECD Publishing, Paris.

IPBES (2019), Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, https://www.ipbes.net/global-assessment-report-biodiversity-ecosystem-services

IUCN (2019), “The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species”. Version 2019-3. https://www.iucnredlist.org/

North American Breeding Bird Survey and European Bird Census Council ; The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) ; BirdLife International ; Statistics Netherlands.

OECD, Analysing data on protected areas, https://www.oecd.org/environment/indicators-modelling-outlooks/analysingdataonprotectedareas.htm

OECD Data Explorer, Environment datasets

OECD work on biodiversity https://www.oecd.org/env/resources/biodiversity/.OECD (n.d.), “Biodiversity: Finance and the Economic and Business Case for Action”, OECD.org., http://www.oecd.org/env/resources/biodiversity/biodiversity-finance-and-the-economic-and-business-case-for-action.htm

OECD (2023), Revenue Statistics 2023: Tax Revenue Buoyancy in OECD Countries, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9d0453d5-en.

UNEP (2019), Global Environmental Outlook 6, Chapter 6 Biodiversity https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/27659/GEO6_CH6.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

UNEP-WCMC, World Database on Protected Areas (database), https://www.protectedplanet.net/c/world-database-on-protected-areas.