Science, technology, and innovation (STI) policies can play an important role in helping countries achieve the SDGs. Renewed momentum is needed to direct STI policies towards addressing economic and societal challenges, particularly achieving the SDGs. Under the auspices of the Summit of the Future, states are developing a Global Digital Compact which will be presented as an annex to the Pact for the Future. The Compact aims to provide the principles, objectives, and actions for advancing an open, free, secure, and human-centred digital future through multi-stakeholder action. To support this global effort, this chapter draws on the OECD’s existing work on science, technology, and innovation. It highlights how the OECD’s insights can advance equitable and sustainable development, while anticipating and responding to future trends, challenges, and opportunities.
OECD Contributions to the 2030 Agenda and Beyond
5. Science, technology, and innovation for sustainable and inclusive transformation
Abstract
Science, technology and innovation (STI) policies play an important role in both today’s and in future societies. To this end, these policies must address societal challenges and are key for achieving sustainable development. At the same time, the digitalisation of different sectors, including the public sector, is fundamental to keep pace with technological progress to deliver products, services and policies that better respond and anticipate citizens’ and businesses’ needs. This chapter focuses on delivering a transformative STI policy agenda and addressing key issues in terms of the digital transformation that shape our reality, including data governance, the promotion of trustworthy artificial intelligence (AI), and the digitalisation of governments and their public sectors. In addition, it covers the use of AI in the labour market and the importance of achieving digital health systems and enhancing broadband connectivity, as well as the promotion of online safety and digital security, upholding human rights in the digital age and the regulation of the space economy.
5.1. Harnessing STI policies to achieve the SDGs
STI policies play an important role in helping countries achieve the SDGs. Renewed momentum is needed to direct STI policies towards addressing economic and societal challenges and achieving sustainability goals. At the global level, embedding shared values in the governance of science and emerging technologies and committing to international cooperation will be equally important. Recognising the potential of STI, while considering its risks, the United Nations are seeking to commit, in the anticipated Pact for the Future, to seize the opportunities presented by STI for the benefit of people and planet (Action 25), to scale-up the means of implementation to developing countries to strengthen their STI capacities (Action 26) and to ensure that STI contribute to the full enjoyment of human rights by all (Action 28) and improve gender equality and the lives of all women and girls (Action 29).
Geographical disruptions, coupled with the climate crisis and anxieties related to technological change, have increased concerns about risk, uncertainty, and resilience, in STI policy (OECD, 2023[1]). To address these concerns and advance major transformative goals such as sustainability transitions, inclusive socio-economic renewal, resilience, and security, a strategic approach to STI is essential.
To achieve these goals, as outlined in the OECD “Agenda for Transformative Science, Technology, and Policies” (hereafter, Transformative Agenda) (OECD, 2024[2]) key policy orientations to steer STI policy are needed, including:
Sustaining investment and greater directionality in research and innovation;
Articulating and embedding shared values in STI;
Accelerating the emergence and distribution of innovations;
Promoting the phase-out of harmful technologies and practices;
Implementing systemic and coordinated STI policy; and
Encouraging flexibility and experimentation.
Figure 5.1. The Transformative Agenda’s transformative goals, policy orientations and STI policy areas
Source: (OECD, 2024[2]).
Additionally, the OECD “Framework for the Anticipatory Governance of Emerging Technologies” (OECD, 2024[3]) supports governments to integrate strategic foresight into policy making by providing actionable policy guidance to better anticipate, prepare for, and act on governance challenges in future emerging technology contexts. It is vital to place anticipation at the centre of emerging technology governance, addressing technology as it emerges and evolves to increase the power of governance both to stimulate innovation and manage risks. This requires interventions at earlier stages in the innovation process such as setting technology strategies, agendas and roadmaps, codes of scientific and engineering practice, and the organisation of research and development.
5.2. Strengthening data governance and promoting trust in cross-border data flows
Data governance – encompassing the array of technical, policy, and institutional arrangements that determine the cycle of how data is collected and used (creation, collection, storage, use protection, access, sharing, and deletion) – plays a central role in maximising the benefits of data while managing risks.
Data are a valuable resource essential to global economic and social activities. Data flows, domestically and across borders, underpin daily business operations, logistics, supply chain optimisation, payments, and international communication. Data also enable public services, scientific research and health monitoring and research; fuel AI; and support informed decision-making by public and private organisations.
As digital technologies increasingly become an integral part of the activities of governments, firms, and people, the amount of data produced using digital technologies is unprecedented and is growing every year. For example, around 140 billion messages are exchanged daily on WhatsApp across the world (OECD, 2024[4]). Although the value of such data flows is challenging to measure (OECD, 2022[5]), some estimates based on direct contributions to the economy put the contribution of data flows to global GDP as high as USD 2.8 trillion (ICC- Data Flows, n.d.[6])
Unlocking the potential of data for economies and societies requires enhanced data access and sharing to drive growth and well-being. For example, governments are among the largest producers and consumers of data, and making their data available, including as open data, supports both transparency and innovation for other actors [ (OECD, 2022[7]); (OECD, 2019[8]). In 2023, OECD countries had made available 47% of high-value datasets – defined as government datasets whose re-use can have major benefits for society and the economy – ranging from 67% in geospatial data to 31% of data on companies and company ownership (OECD, 2023[9]). Despite the need for more progress, OECD countries have increasingly integrated data governance into the public sector in the context of digital government policies, with a score of 63% in “data driven public sector” in the 2023 Digital Government Index as compared to 44% in 2019 [ (OECD, 2024[10]); (OECD, 2020[11])].
However, increased access to and sharing of data, especially across borders, can raise concerns about privacy and personal data protection, ethical use, intellectual property rights protection, competition, and digital security, among others (OECD, 2022[7]). Measures taken to address these concerns can unintentionally stifle innovation, productivity, and economic growth, and can lead to risks of policy fragmentation due to overlapping application of different data governance and privacy frameworks across countries and regulatory domains (OECD, 2023[12]) .
This is why, in globalised economies and societies, fostering trust among governments, firms, and individuals around international data governance is pivotal to facilitating the flow of data across borders (a policy agenda also known as “data free flow with trust”, or DFFT).
OECD standards, notably the 1980 OECD Privacy Guidelines (OECD, 1980[13]); the 2021 OECD Recommendation on Enhancing Access to and Sharing of Data (OECD, 2021[14]) and the 2022 Declaration on Government Access to Personal Data Held by Private Sector Entities (OECD, 2022[15]) provide foundational principles to help governments establish effective data governance and develop common international approaches to cross-border data flows. The OECD also convenes a DFFT Experts Community to bring together a diverse set of stakeholders to inform the work of OECD policy bodies by gathering evidence and suggesting possible concrete solutions to DFFT challenges.
Moreover, the OECD provides additional dedicated resources to help countries enhance trusted internal government data sharing, government-to-government data sharing, and making government data available for public reuse, including the OECD Framework on Data Governance in the Public Sector (OECD, 2019[8]). Good Practice Principles for Data Ethics in the Public Sector (OECD, 2020[16]), the OECD Digital Government Index (OECD, 2024[17]), which assesses data-driven public sector maturity, and the Open, Useful, and Re-usable (OURdata) Index (OECD, 2023[18]), which measures open data policy maturity and the availability of high-value datasets.
5.3. Promoting trustworthy artificial intelligence (AI)
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a transformative, general-purpose technology that promises to boost productivity, improve well-being, promote the UN SDGs and help address global challenges such as climate change, resource scarcity, and health crises. However, its use raises questions and challenges related to trust, fairness, privacy, safety, and accountability, among others. These opportunities and challenges are magnified as AI systems are integrated into daily products and services, and as AI capabilities rapidly advance, especially in areas of language processing and pattern recognition.
Generative AI tools, for example, can revolutionise key industries by boosting productivity, enhancing personalised learning, or serving as interfaces between patients and health providers, but they can also shift labour markets and skill needs, be used to create disinformation and manipulated content of an unprecedented quality and scale, and pose challenges around privacy and intellectual property rights (Lorenz, Perset and Berryhill, 2023[19]).
Coinciding with these technology developments and the rapid uptake of generative AI tools, recent data from the OECD AI Incidents Monitor reveal a tenfold increase in reported AI incidents within a single year, rising from 70 incidents in January 2023 to over 700 incidents in January 2024, demonstrating the growing use of AI as well as associated concerns. At the same time, AI investment is on the rise. Between 2015 and 2023, global venture capital (VC) investments in AI start-ups tripled (from USD 31 billion to USD 98 billion), with investments in generative AI specifically growing from 1% of total AI VC investments in 2022 (USD 1.3 billion) to 18.2% (USD 17.8 billion) in 2023, despite cooling capital markets (OECD, 2024[4]).
Figure 5.2. VC investments in generative AI start-ups have boomed since 2022, while VC investments overall and in AI start-ups reached a peak in 2021
VC investments in AI and generative AI start-ups, 2012-23.
Notes: AI start-ups are identified based on Preqin’s cross-industry and vertical categorisation, as well as on OECD’s automated analysis of the keywords contained in the description of the company’s activities. AI keywords used include: generic AI keywords, such as “artificial intelligence” and “machine learning”; keywords pertaining to AI techniques, such as “neural network”, “deep learning”, “reinforcement learning”; and keywords referring to fields of AI applications, such as “computer vision”, “predictive analytics”, “natural language processing”, “autonomous vehicles”. Please see: (OECD, n.d.[20]) for more information.
Source: OECD.AI (2024) using data from Preqin (OECD, n.d.[20]).
To support countries and stakeholders in navigating AI’s opportunities and challenges, the OECD “Recommendation on Artificial Intelligence” sets a global reference for human-centred AI development and deployment. Adopted in 2019 as the first intergovernmental standard on AI, the Recommendation promotes AI innovation that respects human rights and democratic values. Structured around five values-based principles and five recommendations to governments, it provides policymakers and stakeholders with guidance to design, develop, and deploy trustworthy AI systems throughout their lifecycle.
To help move from principles to practice, the OECD.AI Policy Observatory was created in 2020 (OECD, n.d.[21]) as a hub for understanding AI governance around the world, data and trends, and best practices for ensuring trustworthy AI. The Observatory includes a database of national and regional AI policies, with over 1 000 AI policies from over 70 jurisdictions – the largest government-backed and up-to-date repository of AI policy in the world.
The Recommendation – including a widely cited definition of an AI system - was revised in May 2024 to ensure it reflects and addresses important technology and policy developments, notably with respect to generative AI, and heightened concerns around safety, information integrity, and environmental sustainability. The Recommendation has influenced AI policy and legal frameworks around the world, including the EU AI Act, the Council of Europe, and in standards bodies like the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
5.4. Trustworthy use of AI in the labour market
Policy makers need to ensure that workers and employers are able to capitalise on the opportunities that AI and other digital technologies offer to improve labour market outcomes, from increased productivity to better job quality and reduced inequalities, while addressing risks such as displacement or risks to privacy, autonomy, and accountability.
Trustworthy use of AI in the labour market relies on policies that promote occupational safety and health, fairness, data protection and privacy, as well as transparency, explainability, and accountability (OECD, 2024[22]). The EU AI Act, for example, aims to ensure AI systems are safe, transparent, traceable, non-discriminatory, and environmentally friendly.
Promoting a trustworthy use of AI in the labour market also calls for measures to help workers build the skills they need to work with AI. Evidence also shows that training and worker consultation lead to better outcomes for workers who use AI (OECD, forthcoming[23]). The Biden Executive Order (BEO) promises to support programmes to provide Americans the skills they need for the age of AI. While the details still needed to be worked out, the BEO referred to investments in AI-related education and training, as well as to support for workers displaced by AI. In addition, social dialogue and social protection are critical to manage transitions from declining industries and occupations to new and growing ones (OECD, 2019[24]). (OECD, 2024[22]). The BEO argues that “all workers need a seat at the table, including through collective bargaining, to ensure that they benefit from these opportunities”.
5.5. Governing with AI: Strengthening the use of artificial intelligence in the public sector
The increased availability of AI tools (e.g. generative AI) has renewed governments’ interest in tapping into its potential benefits for the public sector and better understanding the implications of AI with regards to human rights, ethics, and fundamental values.
The application of AI in the public sector is an expanding area that has gained policy traction in recent years. According to the data reported in the 2023 OECD Digital Government Index, approximately 70% of participating OECD countries have used AI to enhance the efficiency of their internal operations, 67% are employing AI to improve responsiveness of public services, and only 30% of participating countries have leveraged AI to enhance the effectiveness of public policies (Figure 5.3) (OECD, 2024[25]).
Figure 5.3. Use of artificial intelligence in the public sector within OECD countries (2022).
Existence of at least one AI project per country in each category
Note: Data for Germany, Greece, Slovakia, Switzerland, and the United States are not included.
Source: Author’s based on data from (OECD, 2024[25]).
Governments are applying AI in the public sector to improve how government administrations function for different purposes (OECD, 2024[26]) (Table 5.1):
To increase the impact of government initiatives by making their core functions and internal operations more efficient;
To transform how governments design public policies and deliver public services, enabling these processes to become more effective and more responsive to the evolving needs of citizens and specific communities; and
To strengthen the accountability of governments by enhancing their capacity for oversight as well as supporting independent oversight institutions.
Table 5.1. Exploring the potential benefits of AI in the public sector
Source: Author based on (OECD, 2024[26]).
The evidence above demonstrates the untapped opportunities of deploying AI in the public sector. However, it also raises questions about the governance mechanisms, policy environment, and tools needed to ensure that AI delivers value in a trustworthy manner. For example, only 15.8% of countries currently have a policy instrument at the central/federal level to assist public institutions in explaining why and how they use AI algorithms, according to the 2023 Digital Government Index (OECD, 2024[25]).
OECD countries have been increasingly developing strategies to use AI in the public sector, updating their regulatory frameworks and developing dedicated policy mechanisms such as ethical frameworks, guidelines, or transparency tools to support safe and trustworthy AI (Table 5.2). Despite these policy efforts, tracking successful systematic use of AI to showcase successful practices, learn from common challenges, enhance potential collaboration, and streamline efforts across the public sector is not yet common practice.
Table 5.2. Governments’ actions across the policy cycle to foster the trustworthy use of AI in the public sector
Source: Author based on (OECD, 2024[26]).
5.6. Achieving well-performing health systems through digital technologies
Health is a key contributor to the SDGs – notably the achievement of Universal Health Coverage (UHC). Digital health systems can accelerate UHC by ensuring accessibility to high quality, essential health services to patients when and where they need it. Indeed, it has been shown that health systems with better use of health data and digital tools achieve improved health outcomes at a lower cost (Kickbusch et al., 2021[32]). To this end, there is a pressing need for consistent data collection linked to digital health that informs which aspects of digital readiness are more important, which digital innovations improve health outcomes, and whether the digital transformation is being achieved equitably.
Harnessing digitalisation for improved health outcomes also requires secure and scalable telemedicine services; policies that enable data use with privacy and safety safeguards; sufficient human, financial, and technical capacity; and trust for the use of digital tools by the public and health providers. A new approach to digital health – including both primary and secondary uses of health data – is needed to optimise benefits for patients and their health providers (Anderson and Sutherland, 2024[33]).
To date, much of the focus of activity in digital health has been on technology and innovation, but this has consistently resulted in underwhelming performance and poor returns on investment due to the fact that health data is not being leveraged effectively in decision-making (EY, 2024[34]). 30% of the world’s data assets are in health (Weber, 2024[35]) and yet less than 3% of health data are used for decision-making (Moore and Dias Guichot, 2024[36]).
International coordination is the key to better applying health data with digital tools and avoiding policy fragmentation. Agreements on interoperable standards for operational processes and information sharing between systems and health data governance frameworks, including the use, quality, privacy, and security of health information, can both benefit from using global health data to improve health systems and support innovation and adoption of digital technologies in healthcare. The OECD, as an international convener of governments across sectors, has led international agreements on AI, Health Data Governance, Protection of Privacy and Personal Data, and Digital Security, all of which are achievements in harmonising international policy to make the most of health information and begin bridging those digital divides.
Involving the stakeholders in the digital transformation of health is equally important. Involvement often starts with understanding the actual needs of end-users. For instance, Finland’s free online course with more than 1 million students (Elements of AI, 2024[37]) – called Elements of AI – is aimed at demystifying the application of artificial intelligence in healthcare and democratising public understanding of AI involvement in health (University of Helsinki, 2023[38]). Such initiatives help both providers and patients to fully utilize digital technologies, facilitates widespread adoption, and support trust. End-users should be actively involved in design and decision-making of the digitalisation of health systems as included in the OECD Recommendation on Health Data Governance (OECD, 2016[39]), (OECD, 2022[40]). Health providers, as found in a recent survey, are not concerned by the disruption of AI; rather, they are concerned about AI being developed without them.
Finally, regulation and oversight need to be able to effectively guide the digitalisation of health – ensuring that safety and health equity through the closure of digital divides is prioritised. Regulation is also necessary to establish clear guardrails for the creation, distribution, and consumption of new digital innovations. Without clear guardrails, there are barriers to scaling public goods, uncertainty for emerging innovators, and potential public harm. Global process is necessary to harmonise policies and standards (e.g., health data access and privacy, standards for processes and information sharing between systems) at the international level while recognising country-level autonomy and sovereignty.
5.7. Enhancing broadband connectivity
Without connectivity, there is no digital transformation. Applications across all sectors of the economy, from smart factories and hospitals to automated vehicles, increase the overall demand on broadband networks that evolve to offer higher speeds, greater reliability, and improved network response times (i.e. low latency) to meet growing needs (OECD, 2022[41]). Across OECD countries, for example, the share of gigabit fixed broadband subscriptions rose by 166% from 2020 to 2022 (OECD, forthcoming[42]). High-quality connectivity will influence the deployment, diffusion, and further development of digital technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI).
A key challenge remains in bridging connectivity divides, that is, ensuring that all people, across all geographic regions, genders, age groups, and socio-economic circumstances benefit from high-quality, accessible, and affordable connectivity.
While progress has been made, persistent connectivity divides remain within and across OECD countries1. Across countries, for example, OECD members had on average 35 fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants in 2022, which was 2.5 times the rate of the world excluding OECD countries (with 14.2 subscriptions per 100) (ITU, 2024[43]). The task at hand is clear: closing connectivity gaps while, at the same time, making broadband networks more future-proof, sustainable, and resilient.
To meet this challenge, governments should focus on three key aspects:
Establishing a clear understanding of connectivity gaps. It is not only important to measure the availability of broadband through indicators such as coverage, penetration, and uptake by firms and individuals, but also to measure the performance (i.e., quality) of the broadband connection within and across countries to set appropriate broadband objectives and expand access in underserved areas. The OECD develops new methodologies and collects a range of regularly updated broadband statistics, such as broadband subscription data by speed tiers and broadband coverage (OECD, 2024[44]).
Fostering competition and investment in communication infrastructure to expand consumer choice, lower prices, increase the quality of broadband offers, and spur innovation. To do so, sound policy and regulatory frameworks are needed, which in turn rely on legal certainty and independent and impartial regulatory bodies. The 2021 OECD Recommendation on Broadband Connectivity (OECD, 2021[45]) provides a roadmap for policies that foster competition, innovation, and investment to boost broadband deployment, particularly in un-served or under-served areas. Where private funding is not sufficient, initiatives to bridge connectivity divides in rural and remote areas may require additional government financing, while others may focus on public management to reduce costs and increase coverage (OECD, 2021[46]). The report on “Financing Broadband Networks of the Future” takes stock, among others, of public connectivity funding initiatives across OECD countries, such as recovery plans following the Covid-19 health crisis (e.g. Canada, the European Union, France, South Korea, United States, and United Kingdom) and economic recovery packages placing emphasis on structural reforms to reduce carbon emissions (e.g. Greece and Korea) (OECD, 2024[47]).
Keeping abreast of technology trends affecting the connectivity ecosystem to “future-proof” networks. The OECD has identified five technological trends that will affect the future of both fixed and mobile networks: the move towards virtualisation, the integration of cloud services into networks, the increased use of AI systems in networks, the move towards openness of networks (OECD, 2022[41]), and research towards 6G and a trend towards the integration of terrestrial wireless (e.g. mobile) and non-terrestrial networks (e.g. satellites) (OECD, forthcoming[48]).
5.8. Upholding human rights in the digital age
The digital environment offers significant opportunities to enhance every person’s enjoyment of human rights, but it can also create new and exacerbated risks. For example, digital technologies provide new and faster ways for people to exercise their freedom of expression but can also facilitate the spread of false and misleading information and of other harmful and/or illegal content that threatens individuals’ online safety and well-being (OECD, 2022[49]; OECD, forthcoming[50]). Digital technologies also provide new avenues for every person to exercise human rights related to health and education – including through telemedicine and online educational resources – but also magnify risks to privacy by enabling the collection and storage of personal data in unprecedented ways. Women are also more at risk of being targeted by harmful content including online violence and sexist language. Adolescent girls are particularly vulnerable to the use of social media and exposure to digital content, with the emergence of forms of gender-based violence (GBV) such as stalking and cyber harassment, ultimately having lasting real-life consequences on their health, well-being and rights (OECD, 2023[51]); (OECD, 2023[52]).
5.8.1. Advancing inclusion and non-discrimination
AI has great potential to promote equality and diversity. For example, AI systems present a promising avenue for greater inclusion of people with disabilities in the labour market, for example through automated speech-to-text or text-to-speech apps. In the public sector, evidence shows that AI can adapt services to users’ needs and preferences, provide wider access to services such as education, safety and health and, overall, can increase citizen well-being (Ubaldi et al., 2019[53]).
However, their design, and in particular the vast amount of data they are trained on, can also create and exacerbate risks linked to privacy (United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2013[54]), security and safety, and individual rights (Council of Europe, 2020[55]; UN, 2020[56]; CoE, 2020[57]; Eubanks, 2018[58]; Richardson, Schultz and Crawford, 2019[59]) as well as bias (e.g. algorithmic bias in job advertisement and recruitment processes) and discrimination (Council of Europe, 2020[60]). Biases and discrimination can be transferred to digital world when machine-learning systems are fed data that only consider and reflect certain demographic groups or reproduce prejudices against such groups.
Algorithmic decision making can also have direct impact, both positive and negative, on the development of public policies – for example, promoting fair access to public services or creating barriers to the ability of all social demographics to participate in public life (Mijatović, 2018[61]); (Chander, 2020[62]); (FRA, 2019[63]).
As digital transformation enhances access to information, services, and participation in economic and social activity, it can also deepen existing divides and inequalities. OECD data suggests that gaps in access to and use of digital technologies remain across age, gender, and education and income levels: across the OECD in 2023, over 95% of individuals aged 55-74 with high levels of education reported using the Internet, compared to only 66% of their counterparts with no or low levels of education (see Figure 5.4 below). In an increasingly digitalised world, the lack of digital skills or access to the Internet and digital technologies can create further disparities related to health, education, employment and participation in civic debate.
Figure 5.4. Share of individuals aged 55-74 years using the Internet
Note: Data refer to 2022 for Canada, Colombia, Korea and Mexico, to 2021 for Iceland, Israel and the United States, to 2019 for Egypt and the United Kingdom, and to respectively 2017 and 2016 for Chile and Australia. The data refer to a recall period of 3 months prior to being surveyed, though some countries use different periods and recall periods may vary over time.
The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities or third party. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.
Source: (OECD, n.d.[64]) OECD (2024), “Share of individuals aged 55-74 years using the Internet”, OECD Going Digital Toolkit, based on the ICT Access and Usage Databases, https://oe.cd/dx/ict-access-usage (accessed on 19 June 2024).
5.8.2. Promoting freedom of expression and access to information
Online platforms and digital technologies offer enhanced means, speed and scale for people to exercise their human right to freedom of expression, including the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds. The free flow of information online provides individuals with immediate and unmediated access to sources and communities across cultural and geographical borders, decentralising knowledge and improving accessibility (OECD, forthcoming[50]).
However, the digital environment and digital technologies can also pose exacerbated risks to the right to freedom of expression, including in the context of false and misleading content online. Recent developments in generative AI applications, for instance, hold a promise for an unlimited supply of tailored educational material, but they are an equally powerful tool to create credible yet false content, making it harder to discern from authentic material. People’s access to information and freedom of expression can be affected by algorithms used by social media platforms and online search engines, hindering stakeholders’ ability to engage in diverse public debate.
Research suggests that social media platforms can limit exposure to varied perspectives and facilitate the formation of groups of like-minded users (Cinelli et al., 2021[65]). Online search engines that use algorithms to index and rank content also means that users are less likely to reach content that is not highly ranked, again limiting their ability to access information (Pasquale, 2016[66]). This can, among other things, have an impact on government outreach efforts – such as public consultations – and by extension on public policy making because it influences the quality of public debate and participation.
Another important element regarding freedom of expression in the digital environment concerns online hate speech as it can deter individuals, especially marginalised communities, from participating in digital spaces, exacerbating digital divides, limiting their access to information and opportunities for social, economic, and political engagement. Online platforms and digital technologies have made different forms of harmful content more visible and easier to spread (UN, 2020[67]).
There is an emerging consensus among governments, technology companies and civil society on the need to consider new policy and regulatory frameworks that encourage the flow of factual information and protect individuals and society from the unchecked spread of hateful or illegal content, while also preserving users’ freedom of expression.
To uphold human rights in the digital age, it is essential to establish robust governance structures, comprehensive laws, and regulatory frameworks through an inclusive multistakeholder process. This may necessitate creating new institutions, portfolios and initiatives and/or ensuring that existing national supervisory, oversight, risk assessment and enforcement institutions have the necessary resources and authority to investigate, oversee and co-ordinate compliance with relevant legislative and regulatory frameworks.
Capacity-building initiatives can be implemented to enhance the knowledge and skills of relevant stakeholders, including government officials, civil society organizations, and the general public. Moreover, targeted efforts must be made to help marginalised communities be aware of their rights.
As the design, development and deployment of digital technologies affect the way human rights are exercised and promoted, it is essential to embed human rights throughout their lifecycle. (OECD, forthcoming[50]). This would require all relevant stakeholders to adopt a principles-based approach to technology development, as per the OECD Recommendation on Artificial Intelligence (OECD, 2024[68]), and ensuring coordination among stakeholders on rights-oriented technology policies by convening in venues such as the OECD Global Forum on Technology (OECD, n.d.[69]) It also entails adopting a risk management approach, including an assessment of potential risks to human rights at each stage of the technologies’ lifecycle.
5.9. Promoting online safety and digital security
The Internet is a powerful medium to replicate and move information at tremendous scale, instantaneously and cheaply. Dangerously, this can also facilitate the spread of child sexual exploitation and abuse (CSEA) material, terrorist, and violent extremist content (TVEC), gender-based violence, and other problematic content.
For example, CSEA is growing rapidly online, with the volume of reports to one major hotline increasing 87% between 2019 and 2023 (WeProtect Global Alliance, n.d.[70]). Countering such illegal content and behaviour online is vital yet challenging. Malicious actors can use content-sharing services anonymously and for free. If their content is removed or their account is deactivated, they can simply re-post and/or open a new account under a different false name.
A key focus of the OECD’s online safety work is society’s most vulnerable group – children. The OECD Recommendation on Children in the Digital Environment” (OECD, 2012[71]) provides policy guidance on promoting a safe and beneficial digital environment for children. The OECD also contributes to building the evidence base in this digital field, gathering data on transparency and accountability and comparing online services’ approaches to content like CSEA (OECD, 2023[72]) and TVEC (OECD, 2022[73]). OECD research (OECD, 2023[72]) shows, for example, that 60% of the world’s top-50 most popular online content-sharing services do not issue a transparency report specifically addressing CSEA. Those that do use different methodologies, making it all but impossible for policy makers to gain a sector-wide perspective on responses to CSEA online and assess the efficacy of countermeasures.
The digital technologies that underpin economic and social activities are also exposed to threats affecting the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data, software, hardware, and networks. In addition to unintentional malfunctions, intentional cyber-attacks exploiting vulnerabilities in products’ code, including Internet of Things (IoT) devices, and misconfigurations (“bugs”) in systems, cause digital security incidents. Research (OECD, 2021[74]) suggests that the global cost of cyberattacks ranges from USD 100 billion to USD 6 trillion annually, and that this amount is rising every year. These attacks affect personal safety and privacy, cause financial damages to individuals, businesses, and organisations, harm their assets, reputation, and competitiveness, and disrupt critical activities in sectors such as finance, energy and health care.
Because digital technologies are interconnected and therefore interdependent, including across borders, stakeholders must all work together to manage digital security risk. The OECD encourages and supports multi-stakeholder cooperation through policy guidance – notably the OECD Policy Framework on Digital Security (OECD, 2022[75])including guidance for national digital security strategies, improving the security of products and services, and bolstering the digital security of critical activities, as well as the Global Forum on Digital Security for Prosperity, which brings together a wide range of countries and stakeholders to discuss topical digital security issues.
5.10. Promoting sustainable development of the space economy
The space economy encompasses all activities and resources that contribute to human progress through the exploration, research, understanding, management, and utilisation of space (OECD, 2022[75]) International co-operation is needed to ensure equitable access and future use of space resources. The development of space capabilities is accelerating around the world with almost 90 countries with space programmes with varying levels of developments (OECD, 2023[76]). Space capacities support critical infrastructures such as communications and transport and contribute fundamental data for decision-making, such as meteorological and climate data.
Satellite systems also contribute to bridging the digital divide as a complement to terrestrial networks (e.g., wireless internet or landline telephones), by serving residential and business users in remote and isolated geographic areas, both in high and low-income countries. Although satellite broadband is still much less used than other broadband technologies (accounting for only 0.5% of OECD fixed broadband subscriptions in June 2023 (OECD, 2023[76]), this could change with the rollout of new satellite-based consumer services.
Figure 5.5. Explosive growth in the number of satellites launched into orbit
Note: The figure covers payloads in the satellite catalogue (e.g. satellites, cargo, humans). This excludes rocket bodies and debris objects.
Source: Updated from (OECD, 2023[76]).
The deployment of commercial satellite constellations – groups of satellites integrated into one system – has led to an explosive growth in the number of objects launched into space (Figure 5.5) (OECD, 2023[76]). In early 2024, satellites from two broadband operators accounted for more than 60% of the 9 500 operational satellites currently in orbit (OECD, forthcoming[77]). Hundreds of thousands of satellites are proposed for the near future, reflecting the growing strategic and economic importance of satellite capabilities and the ongoing race between companies and countries to exploit scarce orbital space and radio spectrum, although multiple projects are likely to fail due to technological problems and lack of finance (OECD, forthcoming[77]).
More intensive exploitation of the space environment also leads to orbital debris accumulation, increased light pollution, and even growing risks to Earth’s protective atmosphere (OECD, 2022[78]) and (OECD, 2023[76]). Certain orbits may become unusable because of unsustainable levels of space debris concentration. Orbits that may be most affected are essential for meteorology, climate research, and disaster and environmental management, in addition to commercial and military applications. In addition to pro-active national policies and space regulations to deal with these issues, active debris removal services may be needed, with demonstration missions launched already and more to come in 2025-26 (OECD, forthcoming[79]).
Addressing the sustained development of the space economy will require stronger and more coordinated public-private collaboration on data-sharing, international consensus on standards and best practices, technological development, and innovative policymaking supported by new economic instruments to increase satellite operators’ compliance. The OECD supports current national and international efforts by providing unique economic analysis, methods for space economy measurement, and new evidence on the economics of space sustainability to support policy actions.
Policy Recommendations
To foster sustainable and inclusive transformations through science, technology and innovation, governments and the international community are encouraged to:
Implement a transformative agenda for STI policies
Ensure sustained investments and greater directionality in research and innovation activities, coinciding with a reappraisal of STI systems and STI policies to ensure they are "fit-for-purpose", as set out in the OECD Agenda for Transformative Science, Technology, and Innovation Policies;
Engage STI systems strategically in key cross-government endeavours that pursue societal and economic transformations to help identify and address innovation needs, and dynamic push and pull factors; and
Invest in strengthening local STI systems, including in human capital and technology production capabilities to further enhance competitiveness and the ability to address societal challenges with mission-driven innovation policies and efforts.
Strengthen data governance and promoting trust in cross-border data flows
Harness the benefits of data access and sharing in the digital economy by building on high standards of data protection;
Promote continued dialogue and international, cross-sectoral, and cross-regulatory cooperation on ways to facilitate data access and sharing across jurisdictions; and
Reinforce public sector data governance as part of digital government strategies.
Promote trustworthy AI
Measure, assess, and anticipate AI’s current and future impact across the economy and society, and support interoperability across policy frameworks and the adoption of trustworthy AI across sectors, acknowledging that the nature and scope of its opportunities and risks may differ based on sectoral specificities;
Support the anticipation of the potential transformative implications of technologies including AI on our economy and society; and
Promote collaborative and inclusive environments to create policy on AI to minimise fragmentation and uncertainty.
Ensure trustworthy use of AI in the labour market
Provide skills development and training opportunities, for both specialist and non-specialist skills.
Promote the use of AI systems in the workplace that respect the privacy of workers, fairness, ensure occupational safety and health, as well as transparency, explainability and accountability;
Promote the active involvement and consultation of workers and workers’ organisations in the adoption of AI systems in the workplace; and
Facilitate cooperation between across countries to promote positive impacts of AI on the world of work globally, including for workers at all stages of the AI supply chain.
Enhance the trustworthy use of AI by the public sector, working to address societal challenges
Develop core digital public infrastructure that is safe, secure, trustworthy and inclusive and investing further in data governance;
Establish, support, and maintain a digitally capable workforce;
Leverage digital government investments as a mechanism to deploy AI in the public sector cohesively and to build partnerships with actors from outside of the public sector;
Promote knowledge sharing, exchange of good practices, and an informed policy dialogue to understand the implications of AI adoption in the public sector and direct its trustworthy use;
Develop international standards to offer policy guidance to countries on how to ensure a safe, secure, and trustworthy development, deployment, and use of AI by the public sector; and
Enhance national and international efforts for monitoring and evaluating the use of AI in the public sector, incorporating regular internal audits, performance monitoring, and impact assessments as essential components.
Achieving effective well-performing digital health systems through digital technologies
Build capacity and engage with the public and providers for the digital transformation;
Harmonise regulation for adaptability, scale, and safety; and
Transparently measure and report progress.
Enhancing broadband connectivity
Establish a clear understanding of connectivity gaps;
Foster competition and investment in communication infrastructure to expand consumer choice, lower prices, increase the quality of broadband offers, and spur innovation; and
Keep abreast of technology trends affecting the connectivity ecosystem to “future-proof” networks.
Upholding human rights in the digital age
Develop policies that address the impact of digital transformation on human rights across sectors, with particular attention to the impact of digital technologies on vulnerable groups, and embed human rights throughout the lifecycle of digital technologies, following a principles-based approach to technology development as in the OECD Recommendation on Artificial Intelligence;
Bridge digital divides, including by providing individuals with digital connectivity and the skills needed to meaningfully participate in economy and society in the digital age; and
Make efforts to raise awareness among the public about their rights in the digital sphere and the availability of mechanisms for making complaints and receiving assistance;
Promoting online safety and digital security
Ensure that the digital environment is both safe and beneficial for individuals, in particular for vulnerable groups such as children, including through coherent policies and measures that provide for age-appropriate child safety by design and that promote digital literacy;
Increase the accountability of online platforms for increasing Internet safety while protecting human rights, including by promoting the issue of transparency reports about online content moderation policies and measures (e.g. terrorist and violent extremist content); and
Encourage the adoption of digital security risk management practices across stakeholders and sectors, including continuous, systematic and cyclical risk assessments and the adoption of resilience, preparedness and continuity measures to mitigate the economic and social consequences of incidents when they occur.
Promoting sustainable development of the space economy
Ensure long-term sustainability of space activities through stronger and more coordinated public-private collaboration on data-sharing, international consensus on standards and best practices, technological development, and innovative policymaking; and
Lower the barriers of access to space by supporting young and small actors through dedicated funding and programmes and reviewing regulatory schemes that excessively benefit incumbents.
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Note
← 1. For indicators on spatial connectivity divides, refer to OECD forthcoming work from the Horizontal Project Going Digital Phase IV “Digital Divides: Improving connectivity”.