OECD Development Co-operation Peer Reviews: Sweden 2019

Chapter 4. Sweden’s structure and systems

Abstract

This chapter reviews Sweden’s organisational structures and management systems for its development co-operation, and examines the extent to which these are fit for purpose and have appropriate capabilities to deliver on Sweden’s development objectives.

Sweden has strengthened co-ordination between the Ministry for Foreign Affairs and its main implementing agency, Sida, enabling a more coherent and cohesive programme. Steps have also been taken to better align the Ministry and its other implementing agencies, but further work remains to be done, particularly with respect to strengthening the alignment of Swedfund’s investments to its development policy, including creating closer links between Swedfund and Sida’s activities.

Sida is working hard to ensure a better balance between efficiency, quality control and risk management within its programming processes. A comprehensive toolbox for tackling corruption is in place and Sweden has given priority to addressing this issue. Sida is engaging in innovative partnerships and financial instruments.

Sweden has enhanced its human resource planning and improved its staff capacity since the last review, but it needs to adopt a more long-term plan to ensure adequate staff capacity in light of a growing ODA budget and increasingly complex programme. Its decentralised workforce remains a major asset.

Authority, mandate and coordination

Peer review indicator: Responsibility for development co-operation is clearly defined, with the capacity to make a positive contribution to sustainable development outcomes

Sweden has enhanced co-ordination between the Ministry for Foreign Affairs and its main implementing agency, Sida, enabling it to deliver a more cohesive and coherent programme. Steps have also been taken to improve alignment between the Ministry and its other implementing agencies, but further work remains, particularly with regard to incorporating Sweden’s development finance institute into its strategy process.

The Ministry for Foreign Affairs has a clear mandate to manage development co-operation and executes leadership

The Ministry for Foreign Affairs (MFA) has a clear mandate to define Sweden’s development co-operation policy and manage the entirety of Sweden’s development co‑operation and humanitarian assistance budget. This budget accounted for 78% of Sweden’s total official development assistance (ODA) allocations in 2017 (Government Offices of Sweden, 2018a). Other ODA spending items, predominately those related to Sweden’s in-donor refugee costs and EU development corporation funded through the EU membership fee, are managed outside of Sweden’s development co-operation and humanitarian assistance budget and handled by other ministries.

The MFA is also responsible for managing the government’s agencies and embassies that are delegated authority for implementing most of Sweden’s development co-operation.1 In 2017, government agencies implemented 51% of Sweden’s reported ODA. The MFA also directly implements 27% of Sweden’s reported ODA related to core multilateral funding and humanitarian aid (Government Offices of Sweden, 2018a).

The MFA has a wide variety of tools and reporting procedures at its disposal for executing its mandate and managing the government agencies responsible for most implementation. (Government Offices of Sweden, 2018b). These include setting the budget for development co-operation and humanitarian assistance and its appropriation items, establishing strategies, issuing ordinances and annual appropriation letters for individual agencies, and requiring annual progress reports.

Development co-operation continues to be deeply integrated within the MFA. While the Department for International Development within the Ministry is the main hub for co‑ordination, nearly all MFA departments are involved (Annex D).2 This ensures strong coherence between Sweden’s foreign policy and development co-operation objectives.

Co-ordination between the MFA and Sida has been strengthened

Since the 2013 peer review, Sweden has further strengthened co-ordination between the MFA and Sida, its main implementing agency. Sida, by far the largest implementing agency, was responsible for programming 47% of Sweden’s total ODA in 20173 (Government Offices of Sweden, 2018a). Sida’s staff are fully integrated into the Ministry’s embassies in the field and there is an array of formal and informal processes for enabling dialogue and follow-up between the two institutions. Since the 2013 peer review, Sweden has also introduced:

• New guidelines for development co-operation strategies (Government Offices of Sweden, 2017a) that have clarified the roles and responsibilities between the two institutions, along with other implementing agencies.

• A Team Sweden approach at the global level with MFA and Sida staff jointly representing Sweden in global development processes that is enabling Sweden to speak with a unified voice at the international level and draw on the full range of its policy and programme expertise.

• New, regular communication on humanitarian aid between the MFA and Sida staff and a new informal working group on the development-humanitarian nexus (Chapter 7) that is leading to more joined-up programming.

These reforms, taken together, are helping Sweden to deliver a more cohesive and coherent programme.

Sweden has also made an effort to improve co‑ordination among the MFA, Sida and its other government agencies, among them the Folke Bernadotte Academy (FBA), the Swedish Institute and the Swedish Research Council. While these agencies are responsible for a relatively small share of ODA (each agency accounted for less than 1% of Sweden’s total ODA in 2017), some of them, like the FBA,4 have grown in policy importance in light of Sweden’s increased focus on addressing conflict.

The introduction of explicit objectives for these agencies within relevant strategies is helping to elucidate their role and strengthen their accountability for delivery. The creation of the new Department for Conflict and Humanitarian Affairs in the MFA is also helping to strengthen dialogue among the FBA, Sida and the MFA and enhance programme coherency (Chapter 7). As is evidenced in Liberia, FBA and Sida effectively complement each other in the field, with FBA contributing to strengthened capacity to promote security and human rights (Annex C).

Moving forward, the Ministry for Foreign Affairs could help the FBA and Sida to move from co‑ordination to collaboration in the field by promoting joint strategy planning and reporting practices. Sweden’s humanitarian assistance could also be systematically recognised in Sweden’s country strategies where long-term humanitarian programming exists, as has already happened in Sweden’s Somalia and Middle East strategies (Chapter 7).

Opportunity to further align Sweden’s development finance institution with its strategic priorities

Sweden’s development finance institution, Swedfund, provides Sweden with an additional set of financial instruments for delivering on its strategic objectives. Currently, however, Sweden is not optimising the use of these instruments within its strategies (Statskontoret, 2016). Swedfund is not involved in the creation or execution of Sweden’s development strategies, unlike the government’s implementing agencies, even those with a strong, inclusive economic growth component. Sweden should strengthen the alignment of Swedfund’s investments to its development policy, including creating closer links between Swedfund and Sida’s activities at the programme level, given their complimentary financing instruments (Chapter 3).

Since the last peer review, the MFA has lost its formal management responsibility for Swedfund to the Ministry of Enterprise and Innovation (MoE) (Government Offices of Sweden, 2018b), even though the MFA is continuing to pay for Swedfund’s annual ODA‑eligible capital injections. There is a rationale for this change, given the MoE’s expertise in corporate efficiency and its existing oversight of state-owned enterprises. Under the new arrangements, the MFA is able to continue to contribute to the owners’ instructions for Swedfund to drive alignment, but it has lost its seat at the governing board. While the MFA holds regular meetings (formal and informal) with Swedfund’s management, the loss of a board seat, complicates communication.

Scaled-up use of a whole-of-government approach for delivery

Sweden, as part of its drive to be a leader in implementing the 2030 Agenda, is increasingly drawing on the expertise of the whole of its government to deliver on its development co‑operation priorities. Its approach to addressing global health challenges (Government Offices of Sweden, 2018c), for example, engages numerous ministries and government agencies around a set of clear development objectives,5 as does its cross-government National Action Plan for the Implementation of the UN Security Council’s Resolutions on Women, Peace and Security (Government Offices of Sweden, 2016).

At the country level, Sida is funding multiple Swedish government agencies to deliver programmes. In Liberia (Annex C), for example, Sweden’s National Board of Trade, Land Registration Authority, Police Authority and General Audit Commission all have programmes assisting the Liberian government in their core competency areas. Sweden’s new strategy for capacity development and partnerships in support of the 2030 Agenda should help enhance this further (Government Offices of Sweden, 2018d). The strategy focuses on capacity building of actors in partner countries, strengthening partnerships and broadening the Swedish resource base. It encourages Sweden to draw on the expertise and experience of its national actors - such as government agencies, local authorities, Swedish universities and the private sector - in international development co-operation.

Systems

Peer review indicator: The member has clear and relevant processes and mechanisms in place

Sida is making efforts to improve the balance between efficiency, quality control and risk management within its programming processes. A comprehensive toolbox for tackling corruption is in place and Sida is engaging in innovative initiatives, but it could do more to incentivise innovation more broadly across the organisation.

Programme reforms aim for a better balance between efficiency, quality control and risk management

Since the last peer review, Sida has further reformed its programme management systems to better balance quality control measures and risk management processes with the need for programme efficiency. A 2016 external review of Sida’s programme management systems ordered by Sida’s Director-General found that processes were cumbersome and not cost-effective, and that risk and quality control measures were constraining (Danielsson, Dahlgren and Lindström, 2016). In response, Sida has streamlined its Contribution Management System, its main programming tool. Quality control measures have also been decentralised (to a certain extent) and risk management processes have been reformed to focus more on those risks that may have a material impact.

The reforms, implemented just in 2018, are too new for a full assessment of their impact. But they appear to have given managers at unit, embassy and department level greater flexibility to use their professional judgement, within certain limits, regarding the necessary level of quality control measures required.6 This should enable managers to draw upon the extensive quality control support systems that exist within Sida and the MFA, as and when really needed.7

The reforms also require staff to identify risks earlier in the programme cycle, and to prioritise attention through-out the programme cycle on high-impact risks and those that are highly likely to occur, to ensure a more effective approach. In Liberia, the embassy was already putting this into practice with its identification of three major risks at the strategic level and appropriate action plans for managing these risks (Annex C).

As Sweden continues to roll out its new results-based management approach with its focus on adaptive programming, further reviews of its programming processes will need to be carried out to ensure staff are easily able to course-correct programmes within the system and to record learning (Chapter 6).

Sweden prioritises tackling corruption and has a comprehensive and proactive approach

Sweden has a comprehensive approach to preventing, detecting and responding to corruption that runs throughout its strategy and programming processes. Integral to this approach is its work to support its partners - both developing countries and implementation programme partners - to improve their own corruption risk management systems and institutions (Chapter 5 and Annex C).8

A 2016 Sida corruption vulnerability assessment for the whole agency has resulted in enhanced training, more audit controllers embedded in embassies, and the MFA and Sida improving their understanding of how Sweden’s multilateral partners are tackling the issue (Sida, 2018a).9 A recent rise in reported suspicions of corruption to Sida has been attributed to increased staff and partner awareness.10

At the international level, Sweden is an active member of the OECD Anti-Corruption Task Team and led in helping to develop the OECD Recommendation of the Council for Development Co‑operation Actors on Managing the Risk of Corruption (OECD, 2016). To ensure policy coherence for development, Sweden could fully implement the OECD Convention on Combating Bribery (Chapter 1).

Sweden is promoting sustainable public procurement to support the 2030 Agenda

Sweden’s new National Public Procurement Strategy (Government Offices of Sweden, 2017b) aims to encourage its public bodies to follow sustainable public procurement practices in support of the 2030 Agenda (Box 4.1). The strategy is currently being rolled out across the government, including within international development co-operation. The MFA is also encouraging its multilateral development partners to better align their procurement with the 2030 Agenda. This is good practice.

Box 4.1. Using public procurement to support the 2030 Agenda

In 2017, Sweden adopted a new National Public Procurement Strategy that aims to align public procurement practices with the 2030 Agenda (Government Offices of Sweden, 2017b). Sweden’s public sector spent SEK 684 billion (equivalent to USD 80 billion at the 2017 exchange rate) on procurement of goods and services in 2017 (Swedish Competition Authority, 2018). The new strategy seeks to ensure that these considerable resources are deployed in a manner that is not only economically sustainable, but also supportive of environmental and social sustainability.

The government has set up a National Agency for Public Procurement that offers access to a wide range of environmental and social criteria that Sweden’s public agencies and bodies can take into account when procuring goods and services in given sectors. The approach is being used in procurement undertaken as part of Sweden’s development co-operation: in its annual appropriation, the government has mandated that Sida enhance the sustainability of its procurement and makes a specific reference to taking gender equality into account across Sida’s procurement practices (Government Offices of Sweden, 2017d). The MFA is also promoting this approach with its major multilateral partners such as the United Nations and World Bank.

Sources: Government Offices of Sweden (2017b), National Public Procurement Strategy, Ministry of Finance, Stockholm, https://www.government.se/4aba88/contentassets/9ec42c71c00442a39d67169d3c25faed/nation al-public-procurement-strategy.pdf.; Government Offices of Sweden (2017d) “Regleringsbrev för budgetåret 2018 avseende Styrelsen för internationellt utvecklingssamarbete” [Regulations for the financial year 2018 regarding the Board of Directors for International Development Cooperation]”, Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Stockholm, https://www.esv.se/statsliggaren/regleringsbrev/?RBID=18531; Swedish Competition Authority (2018), The Swedish Procurement Monitoring Report 2018, Konkurrensverket, Stockholm, http://www.konkurrensverket.se/globalassets/aktuellt/nyheter/the-swedish-procurement-monitoring-report-2018.pdf.

Sweden’s efforts to foster innovation have focused on partnerships and financial instruments

Sweden is keen to create a culture of innovation within its development co‑operation.

Sida has focused most of its efforts to date on driving innovation through specific partnerships and innovative financial instruments and funds and has a dedicated annual budget for development of such partnerships and financial instruments. In addition, many bilateral, regional and thematic strategies support innovation systems and individual innovations. For example, Sida supports 12 different Challenge Funds/innovation funds; through open calls for proposals, these Funds provide financing to entrepreneurs and innovators in areas as diverse as peace, agriculture, sexual and reproductive health and rights and humanitarian assistance.11 Sida is also the first donor in the world to use its guarantee instrument to support a crowdfunding platform aimed at generating increased access to finance for solar-powered, off-grid energy service providers in sub-Saharan Africa.12

Sida has tried to incentivise innovation in its programming more generally, with the introduction of annual prizes to managers who foster innovative programming within their teams. However, more could be done to embed innovation across the institution. Sida’s innovative approach to results-based management is a positive step in this direction (Chapter 6). Moving forward, Sida could increase its capacity to support its staff to innovate at the programme level by focusing on a set of priority issues, enhancing staff incentives, and putting in place strong mechanisms for identifying and scaling up successes.

Capabilities throughout the system

Peer review indicator: The member has appropriate skills and knowledge to manage and deliver its development co-operation, and ensures these are located in the right places

Sweden has enhanced its human resources planning and improved its staff capacity since the last review. However, it needs to continue to ensure adequate staff capacity in light of a growing ODA budget and an increasingly complex programme. Its decentralised workforce remains a major asset.

Sweden needs to ensure staff capacity in light of a growing and increasingly complex programme

Sweden’s growing ODA budget, increasing focus on working in fragile contexts and greater use of complex financial instruments pose risks. Adequate staff capacity is required to ensure quality programming. Since the last peer review and following a 20% cut in staff between 2009 and 2013, Sida has managed to increase the size of its workforce. Staff numbers have risen from 633 in 2013 to 889 in 2018 (Government Offices of Sweden, 2018b). In line with the 2013 peer review recommendations, Sida has also put in place a new workforce planning system that is enabling it to better plan staff rotations, support career progression and address competency gaps.13

In the MFA, an organisational review in 2016 prompted increased staff capacity for financial controls and quality assurance for the development co-operation programme.14 Development co-operation skills are taken into account in the general recruitment procedures for the Ministry, and it is common for Sida staff to transition to the MFA, bringing with them considerable development expertise. The MFA has also started to undertake joint training with Sida in areas including security in the field and anti‑corruption.

Nevertheless, the administrative budgets of Sida and the MFA have failed to increase in line with Sweden’s growing ODA budget and in the case of the MFA, its administrative budget related to ODA delivery has fallen over time (Table 4.1). Sweden’s ODA budget has increased by 27.6% between 2014 and 2018, while Sida’s administrative budget increased by 22.5% and the MFA’s budget decreased by 10.2% over the same period.

Table 4.1. Ministry for Foreign Affairs and Sida administrative budgets for ODA 2014-19

	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019
ODA Total Budget SEK Million	38 370	40 445	43 336	46 129	48 950	50 710
Sida Administrative Budget	979	1 011	1 092	1 103	1 199	1 276
MFA Administrative Budget devoted to ODA delivery	463	444	448	451	416	424

Source: Communication from the Government of Sweden, 2019.

A recent report commissioned by the Expert Group on Aid Studies (EBA) on the impact of Sweden’s target to spend 1% of its gross national income on ODA highlighted that Sida has struggled to allocate funds, given its limited administrative capacity (Anell, 2017). Most recently, Sida found it difficult to fund staff to work in hardship posts within the boundaries of its administrative budget and had to be given an exceptional, additional administrative budget of SEK 75 million (equivalent to USD 8.7 million at the 2017 exchange rate) in 2018, in recognition of the extra costs of supporting staff working in fragile and conflict-affected countries like Afghanistan.

Staff capacity gaps also continue to exist, for example with regard to environmental expertise, and Sida continues to rely on outsourced policy Help Desks to augment its policy expertise on a range of issues (Annex C and Chapter 7).15 There is also a need to build staff capacity on adaptive management as part of Sida’s new results-based management approach (Chapter 6).

Sweden should take a more long-term and deliberative approach to ensuring it has adequate human resources and administrative capacity in light of the programmes’ expanding needs.

Sweden has continued to decentralise its development co-operation staff

Sida has further decentralised its workforce, with 38.5% of its staff located abroad in 2017, up from 25% in 2013.16. This decentralisation, coupled with Sweden’s high level of delegated programme and financial authority to field staff, is a major asset of Sweden’s development co-operation approach (Chapter 5). It enables country programming to be developed and managed on the ground, with strong local knowledge of context, and allows for flexibility to respond to changing needs.

Local staff, as is evidenced in Liberia, tend to be highly qualified. They are empowered to shape and manage their respective programme portfolios and to represent Sweden at the technical level. Access to training and mentoring schemes for local staff enables professional development.

References

Government sources

Government Offices of Sweden (2018a), Background Note on Sweden’s International Development Cooperation: Governance and Budget, Stockholm.

Government Offices of Sweden (2018b), DAC Peer Review 2019 - Memorandum of Sweden, September 2018, Stockholm.

Government Offices of Sweden (2018c), Sweden’s Work on Global Health: Implementing the 2030 Agenda, Stockholm, https://www.government.se/4acda4/globalassets/government/dokument /utrikesdepartementet/sv_arbete_m_global_halsa_english_final.pdf.

Government Offices of Sweden (2018d), Strategi för kapacitetsutveckling,partnerskap och metoder som stöder Agenda 2030 för hållbar utveckling [Strategy for Capacity Development, Partnerships and Methods that Support Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development], Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Stockholm, https://www.regeringen.se/4a17d4/contentassets/ba9cd152d7d74eb4a496cd5dbb88b418/strategi_kapacitetsutveckling_webb.pdf.

Government Offices of Sweden (2017a), Guidelines for Strategies in Swedish Development Cooperation and Humanitarian Assistance, Stockholm, https://www.government.se/48feb3/contentassets/3291aeacc48c495898d5bd59702d9e32/guidelines-for-strategies-in-swedish-development-cooperation-and-humanitarian-assistance.pdf.

Government Offices of Sweden (2017b), National Public Procurement Strategy, Ministry of Finance, Stockholm, https://www.government.se/4aba88/contentassets/9ec42c71c00442a39d67169d3c25faed/national-public-procurement-strategy.pdf.

Government Offices of Sweden (2017c), Policy for Global Development in the Implementation of the 2030 Agenda, Government Communication 2017/18:146, Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Stockholm, https://www.government.se/4ab8e7/contentassets/338057ee724641cda2e54840688d3e21/pgu_skrivelse_engelska_slutgiltig_181011_nyttomslag-002.pdf.

Government Offices of Sweden (2017d), Regleringsbrev för budgetåret 2018 avseende Styrelsen för internationellt utvecklingssamarbete [Regulations for the Financial Year 2018 Regarding the Board of Directors for International Development Cooperation]”, Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Stockholm, https://www.esv.se/statsliggaren/regleringsbrev/?RBID=18531.

Government Offices of Sweden (2016), Sweden’s National Action Plan for the Implementation of the UN Security Council’s Resolutions on Women, Peace and Security 2016-2020, Stockholm, https://www.government.se/contentassets/8ae23198463f49269e25a14d4d14b9bc/women-peace-and-security-eng.pdf.

Sida (2018a), “Anti-corruption statement of the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida)”, International Anti-Corruption Conference 2018, Copenhagen, https://iaccseries.org/ wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Sweden_SIDA_National_Statement_2018.pdf.

Sida (2018b) Annual Report 2017: Sida’s Management of Suspicions of Corruption, Sida, Stockholm, https://www.sida.se/contentassets/33f78c59b338440896f32564cfd3d586/aarsrapport_2017_engelska.pdf.

Sida (2017), Crowdfunding Guarantee, Sida, Stockholm, https://www.sida.se/contentassets/cd56cb8f317e4f239ceb818aa4352872/30213947_sida_infoblad_crowdfunding_guarantee_webb.pdf.

Sida (2016), Anti-Corruption Rule, Sida, Stockholm, https://www.sida.se/contentassets/ 2da155eec7d94a12b25fd370f0ffa515/sidas-anti-corruption-rule—2016-02-29-master.pdf.

Statskontoret (2016), “English Summary of Collaboration Between Aid and Industry: An Analysis of Role Distribution Between Sida and Swedfund (2016:7)”, Swedish Agency for Public Management, Stockholm, http://www.statskontoret.se/In-English/publications/2016---summaries-of-publications/collaboration-between-aid-and-industry.-an-analysis-of-role-distribution-between-sida-and-swedfund-20167/.

Swedish Competition Authority (2018), The Swedish Procurement Monitoring Report 2018, Konkurrensverket, Stockholm, http://www.konkurrensverket.se/globalassets/aktuellt/nyheter/the-swedish-procurement-monitoring-report-2018.pdf.

Other sources

Anell, Lars (2017), Enprocentmålet - en kritisk essä [The One Percent Goal: A Critical Essay], Expert Group for Aid Studies (EBA), Stockholm, https://eba.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Slutlig-version-före-tryck.pdf.

Danielsson, L., Dahlgren. S and Lindström. J, (2016), Utvärdering av ändamålsenligheten i Sidas arbete med insatshantering [Evaluation of Sida’s Internal Contribution Management System], FCG Swedish Development AB, Stockholm, https://www.fcgsweden.se/projects/evaluation-of-sida-s-internal-contribution-management-system/.

OECD (2016), Recommendation of the Council for Development Co-operation Actors on Managing the Risk of Corruption, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/corruption/anti-bribery/Recommendation-Development-Cooperation-Corruption.pdf.

Notes

← 1.  Sweden’s six main ODA implementation agencies are Sida, Swedfund, Swedish Institute, Folke Bernadotte Academy (FBA), Swedish Research Council, and Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency.

← 2.  The UN Policy Department is responsible for core multilateral funding. The Global Agenda Department is responsible for governance and evaluation of funding via the development banks and climate funds. The Department for Conflict and Humanitarian Affairs is responsible for humanitarian aid through the United Nations (UN), European Union (EU) and International Red Cross Movement and all issues relating to the Folke Bernadotte Academy. Geographic departments co-ordinate development co-operation in individual countries and regions, working directly with the government’s expert agencies to assist and oversee operationalisation of strategies.

← 3.  Sida was responsible for implementing 47% of Sweden’s total reported ODA budget in 2017, as the government of Sweden notes in its Background Note on Sweden’s International Development Cooperation: Governance and Budget, Stockholm. However, Sida was responsible for 61% of Sweden’s development co-operation and humanitarian assistance budget managed by Ministry for Foreign Affairs in 2017 (Expenditure Area 7 in Sweden’s national budget). The MFA’s development co-operation and humanitarian assistance budget excludes in-donor refugee costs, some spending for the EU’s external assistance and other items that can be classified as ODA.

← 4.  Folke Bernadotte Academy (FBA) is Sweden’s government agency for peace, security and development. FBA supports international peace operations and international development cooperation. The agency conducts training, research and method development in order to strengthen peacebuilding and statebuilding in conflict and post-conflict countries. FBA also recruits civilian personnel and expertise for peace operations and election observation missions led by the EU, UN and the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe.

← 5.  The Ministry of Health and the Ministry for Foreign Affairs are the prime government ministries responsible for delivering on the strategy, but seven additional government agencies have specific responsibilities for delivering parts of the strategy. These are the Public Health Agency of Sweden, Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare, Swedish Food Agency, Swedish Board of Agriculture, Swedish Chemicals Agency, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, and Sida. The Public Health Agency of Sweden, for example, has been charged with providing support for implementing the global action plan on antimicrobial resistance. The Swedish Research Council plays a key role in international research collaboration on this issue.

← 6.  Departmental directors are driven by a common set of principles that indicate when certain internal support resources must be used to assist with quality control. For example, some types of financial risk require directors to bring in a controller to assess the contribution, while others require the legal department to be involved.

← 7.  Sweden has rigorous quality assurance mechanisms in place throughout its system. Sida’s quality control measures operate at three levels: the operational department level, the cross-departmental level in the form of internal controls and budget and regulatory follow-ups, and the director level in the form of an independent audit function.

← 8.  According to a 2018 Sida statement, the objective of reducing corruption is an area or target in 11 out of 43 Swedish development co-operation strategies (26%). Sida also notes that it spent SEK 1.1 billion (equivalent to USD 129 million) in 2017 on direct and indirect anti-corruption measures in developing countries. Sida defines direct anti-corruption support as funding to anti-corruption organisations and institutions and indirect anti-corruption support as funding to improve public financial management, public sector policy and management, media support, and access to information. See the Sida statement at https://iaccseries.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Sweden_SIDA_National_Statement_2018.pdf.

← 9.  Staff from the MFA and Sida visited the UN’s headquarters in 2017 to understand how various UN organisations are addressing corruption, in light of the significant amounts of Swedish multilateral funding (core and multi-bi) that goes through UN bodies.

← 10.  Sida’s 2017 annual corruption report, noted that 262 suspicions of corruption or irregularities were reported to its investigation group. This is the highest figure since Sida began compiling statistics in 2007. The investigation group attributes the significant rise in reported suspicions as a result of increased staff and partner awareness. Whistle-blower mechanisms and external reporting systems are also in place and could play an important detection role, although there is a need to increase their visibility and use. The annual corruption report is at https://www.sida.se/contentassets/33f78c59b338440896f32564cfd3d586/aarsrapport_2017_engelska.pdf.

← 11.  Sida currently supports 12 different Challenge/Innovation Funds: Innovations Against Poverty, Global Innovation Fund, Amplify Change, Demo Environment, Securing Water for Food, Powering Agriculture, African Enterprise Challenge Funds, Innovations for Peace/Emprender Paz, Humanitarian Innovation Fund, the Challenge in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Swedish Somali Business Programme (with embedded challenge fund), and Grand Challenges Africa.

← 12.  Sida’s Crowdfunding Guarantee enables debt finance to be available for companies providing affordable solar systems in off-grid areas across Africa. The guarantee contribution is expected to provide 560 000 people access to electricity services based on renewable energy. See https://www.sida.se/contentassets/cd56cb8f317e4f239ceb818aa4352872/30213947_sida_infoblad_crowdfunding_guarantee_webb.pdf.

← 13.  The creation of a Human Resources Council within Sida has been key to this system, bringing together staff from each department to collectively assess needs and address staffing gaps rather than compete for staff and resources.

← 14.  Four new posts were created in 2017, three of them based in the MFA’s UN Department and one in its Department for International Development Cooperation to help with overall quality assurance.

← 15.  For example, there are Help Desks for human security and humanitarian assistance, democratic governance and human rights, and public finance management/ aid effectiveness for Sida Africa. These are staffed by consultants or a consortium of organisations.

← 16.  The Secretariat was informed by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs that Sida had 889 staff in 2018, of these, 546 staff were based at HQ, 168 were sent-out staff based in embassies and 175 National Program Officers (locally employed staff at embassies).