A strong lifelong learning culture, in particular in adulthood, is essential for Latvia to boost the skills of its adults, and can generate a range of personal, economic and social benefits. This chapter assesses adult leaning in Latvia and presents four opportunities to strengthen adult learning: 1) raising awareness about adult learning; 2) reducing barriers to adult learning; 3) expanding the provision of adult learning; and 4) raising the quality of adult learning.
OECD Skills Strategy Latvia
Assessment and Recommendations
OECD Skills Studies
3. Fostering a culture of lifelong learning
Abstract
Introduction: The importance of a culture of lifelong learning for Latvia
A culture of lifelong learning can be defined as the set of beliefs, values and attitudes, and resulting behaviours, favourable towards learning that a group shares across the life-course (OECD, 2010[1]). A strong lifelong learning culture is imperative if a country wishes to thrive in an increasingly complex world. While the precise skills needs of the future are unknown, a strong lifelong learning culture ensures that individuals are ready to upgrade their existing skills or acquire new skills to adapt to new challenges and opportunities. In this chapter, the focus will be on the notion of a lifelong learning culture as it relates to adults in Latvia and how much they engage in adult learning.
Adult learning matters for Latvia. Productivity growth has slowed since the 2008 financial crisis and has not yet returned to pre-crisis levels. This is partly due to low levels of innovation and the difficulties employers experience in finding they skilled labour they need to help them attract capital investments, adopt new technologies and participate in global value chains (OECD, 2017[2]). The shortage of skilled labour is exacerbated by demographic trends of population ageing, low fertility rates and a high level of emigration. To address these skill shortages, it is critical for Latvia to ensure that its education system is aligned with changing labour market needs (see Chapters 2 and 4) and reduce the drivers of emigration, such as poor working conditions (see Chapter 4).
There is also a growing need in Latvia to upgrade and reskill regularly in adulthood in the context of technological change, more frequent transitions between jobs, the growth of non-standard forms of work (and by extension less access to employer sponsored training) and the lengthening of working lives.
In addition, adult learning is essential for boosting the skills of adults and can generate a range of personal, economic and social benefits. Higher skilled adults typically have higher earnings and employment rates, report better health, feel more included in political processes and have more trust in others than low-skilled adults.
There are a number of different strategies in which Latvia spells out its vision and goals for adult learning, as outlined in Chapter 5. The most important goal for Latvia is reaching the EU adult learning participation rate of 15% by 2020. In order for Latvia to reach this goal, it is critical for the government and all stakeholders to work together (Muhina, 2018[3]).
This chapter provides an overview of current arrangements and performance indicators in adult learning in Latvia. It then proceeds to discuss the four opportunities through which Latvia can improve adult learning: 1) raising awareness about adult learning; 2) reducing barriers to adult learning; 3) expanding the provision of adult learning; and 4) raising the quality of adult learning. For each opportunity, the available data is analysed, relevant national and international policies and practices are discussed, and recommendations are given on how to improve adult learning.
Latvia’s adult learning system: Overview and recent performance
Overview of the current adult learning system
Adults can learn through formal adult education, non-formal adult education and informal adult learning opportunities. Formal adult education occurs in a structured environment and leads to a nationally recognised formal qualification. Non-formal adult education also occurs in a structured environment, but may only lead to a diploma or certificate that is recognised by a sector or professional body. Informal adult learning is unstructured and does not lead to any qualification. When referring to formal and non-formal education, the term “adult education” will be used. When referring to formal, non-formal education and informal learning, the more encompassing term “adult learning” will be used (for more information, see Box 3.1).
In Latvia, adult learning programmes are offered by the public and private sector. From the public side there are a number of different ministries engaged in adult learning who are responsible for different policies. The Ministry of Education and Science (MoES) drafts policy planning documents and legislative acts regulating adult learning, supervises the implementation of policies in MoES institutions and related agencies, co-ordinates adult education policy implementation, and sets the finance allocation principles based on data and research findings. The MoES also establishes finance mechanisms, identifies resources (national, European Structural Fund, employers, private), identifies target groups and specifies the various responsibilities of the other relevant ministries. The Ministry of Welfare (MoW) implements active labour market policies, which include the provision of training for those who are unemployed, persons exposed to the risk of social exclusion and refugees, among others, and monitors whether those unemployed are finding employment. The Ministry of Economics (MoE) carries out labour market analysis and prepares medium-term and long-term labour market forecasts. Each of these ministries, in addition to others, also operate specific adult learning programmes (Table 3.1).
Municipalities also have responsibility for adult education, since they implement adult education policies at the local level and issue licences for non-formal education programmes. Some municipalities also provide adult education through public adult education institutions, which can be adult education centres, cultural clubs, associations, or others (European Commission, 2018[4]). However, similar to the regional disparity issue in initial education (see Chapter 2), the functioning and capacity of local adult education centres depend on the resources of the municipalities. Municipalities with more resources can provide better services than municipalities with fewer resources, which highlights the need for strong governance structures to ensure equity in adult learning across Latvia (see Chapter 5).
Table 3.1. Public adult learning programmes
There are many different providers in the private sector. For large companies with sufficient human resource (HR) capacity, training for their employees may be provided internally. This may done, for example, in the Bank of Latvia, telecommunication companies Latvian Mobile Telephone and Tet, and Latvian Railway. For small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), external specialised training providers can provide training on an “as needed” basis. In some occupations, training is provided by professional associations, such as the Latvian Chamber of Crafts and the Latvian Union of Physicians. Private training providers are also involved in training unemployed individuals, who can select to receive training in private instead of public training centres through the voucher system. Both private and public training institutions can participate and offer training for the unemployed if they meet the set criteria that institutions and programmes are recognised (i.e. registered, accredited and licensed, as set out in regulation). In 2017, there were 26 private institutions (vs. 9 public) providing vocational training and 100 private institutions (vs. 18 public) providing non-formal education and training. Besides employment relevant training, private adult learning providers may also provide training for other personal reasons (e.g. hobbies). The Latvian Adult Education Association is a network of 62 adult education providers across the towns and districts of Latvia. These include the folk schools, which are active in the rural areas and aim to provide civic education and transmit traditions from the first independent Republic. In order to expand the provision of adult learning, the Education Law (March 2010) allows private providers to offer non-formal adult education with only a license from the municipality, and no longer with a license issued by the State Service of Education Quality. While this expands provision, quality is adversely affected (see Opportunity 4: Raising the quality of adult learning opportunities in this chapter) (European Commission, 2018[4]).
Tertiary education institutions are also involved in the provision of adult learning by organising various types of professional development activities, such as for specialists whose professions are defined by national regulation (teachers, medical doctors, etc.), and providing different study programmes of interest, including on a part-time basis. Tertiary education institutions establish lifelong learning centres and offer various opportunities for professional development. At the same time, higher education could act more actively in this field, and the offer of tertiary education institutions could be more flexible and respond better to the needs of the labour market.
With such a broad range of stakeholders playing a role in adult learning, it is important to have strong governance structures in place. In Latvia, there are a number of bodies that co-ordinate across public and private stakeholders:
The Governing Council for Adult Education includes the three main Ministries (MoES, MoW, MoE) and other ministries involved in adult education, such as the Ministry of Culture and the Ministry of Health; social partners such as the Employers’ Confederation of Latvia (LDDK) and the Free Trade Union Confederation of Latvia; municipalities; and organisations involved in adult education, such as the Cross Sectoral Co-ordination Centre, the Latvian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Latvian Association of Local and Regional Governments, and the Association of Planning Regions. The goals of the Council are to decide on priority target groups and priority areas, confirm the quality criteria for adult education, and evaluate and analyse the quality of programmes.
The Council of Employment is composed of the Ministers of Economics, Education and Science, and Welfare. They discuss the changes needed to improve the quality of education, increase the number of students in Science Technology Engineering Mathematics (STEM) sectors, involve employers in the development and provision of education, and improve people's skills for employment in the long term.
The Vocational Education and Employment Tripartite Co-operation Council (PINTSA) is a Sub-council of the National Tripartite Co-operation Council (NTSP). The NTSP co-ordinates and organises trilateral social dialogue between employers’ associations, government institutions and trade unions. The NTSP includes representatives appointed by the government, the Employers’ Confederation and the Latvian Free Trade Union Confederation (LBAS). It promotes co-operation between the state, employers and workers' organisations (trade unions) in the development and implementation of national policies and strategies for vocational education and employment. PINTSA's secretariat activities are supported by the Ministry of Education and Science.
Additional bodies are the sectoral expert councils co-ordinated by the Employers’ Confederation of Latvia (LDDK) and the Council for the Co-operation of Agriculture Organisations (LOSP), which define the needs for adult learning in terms of qualifications and skills in adult learning programmes (e.g. SO 8.4.1.), plan the provision of adult learning, and design adult learning curricula. The governance of the skills system in Latvia and opportunities to improve upon it will be discussed further in Chapter 5.
Box 3.1. Measures of formal education, non-formal education and informal learning
Formal education: Formal education is provided in schools, colleges, universities or other educational institutions, and leads to a certification that is recognised by the national educational classification.
Non-formal education: Non-formal education is defined as any organised and sustained educational activities that do not correspond exactly to the above definition of formal education. Non-formal education may therefore take place both within and outside educational institutions, and cater to persons of all ages. This includes courses through open and distance education, on-the-job training, seminars, workshops or private lessons.
Informal learning: Informal learning relates to typically unstructured, often unintentional, learning activities that do not lead to certification. In the workplace, this is a more or less an automatic by-product of the regular production process of a firm. The OECD’s Survey of Adult Skills, a product of the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) asks several questions about types of informal learning, for example: “In your own job, how often do you learn new work-related things from co-workers or supervisors?” and “How often does your job involve learning-by-doing from the tasks you perform?”
Source: OECD (2011[5]), PIAAC Conceptual Framework of the Background Questionnaire Main Survey, www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/PIAAC(2011_11)MS_BQ_ConceptualFramework_1%20Dec%202011.pdf.
Overview of Latvia’s performance
According to the OECD Priorities for Adult Learning (PAL) indicators, Latvia is ranked as the fourth highest country in terms of urgency of getting the adult learning system ready for the future (OECD, 2019[6]). PAL combines a number of different indicators on adult skills, population ageing, automation and structural change and globalisation. Latvia’s performance in adult learning participation across informal learning, non-formal and formal education is mixed. Challenges include raising participation among under-represented individuals (e.g. unmotivated, low educated, rural residents), removing financial and time barriers to participation, increasing provision, and raising the overall quality of adult education.
While participation in informal learning is relatively high, participation in formal and non-formal adult education could be raised
In Latvia, informal learning is the most common means of acquiring skills in adulthood (Figure 3.1). In the Adult Education Survey, informal learning is defined as learning from other people, through printed or online material, and in certain venues, such as museums, libraries, and historical, natural or industrial sites. Informal learning is more prominent in Latvia than in other EU countries. In 2016, the share of adults who reported participating in informal learning in the past 12 months was 82.1% in Latvia compared to an average of 60.5% in the EU (Figure 3.2). This has also been a significant increase for Latvia, since the informal learning rate 53.9% in 2007. Informal learning activities in Latvia include hobby activities such as song and dance groups that prepare for and participate in the Latvian Song and Dance Festival.
Figure 3.1. Adult learning participation rates in Latvia, 2016
Share of 25-64 year-old adults who reported participation across the three different adult learning activities
Source: Eurostat (2019[7]), Adult Education Survey 2016 (database), Participation rate in informal learning by learning form and sex; Participation rate in education and training by sex, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
Figure 3.2. Adult learning participation rates in Latvia compared to other countries
Note: AES = Adult Education Survey; LFS = Labour Force Survey; EU-CVTS = EU Continuing Vocational Training Survey.
The OECD average is based on the sample of OECD countries/regions assessed in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC).
Source: Calculations based on OECD (2015[8]), OECD Survey of Adults Skills (PIAAC) (database 2012, 2015), www.oecd.org/skills/piaac; Eurostat (2019[9]), Adult Education Survey 2016 (database), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database; OECD (2017[10]), Digital Economy Outlook 2017, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264276284-en.
Participation in non-formal education in Latvia (45.7%) is slightly above the EU average (42.7%), as measured in the Adult Education Survey by participation within the last twelve months (Figure 3.2). The participation rate in Latvia remained similar between 2007 (30.7%) and 2011 (30.3%).
The share of adults participating in formal education in Latvia (4.4%) is slightly below the EU average (5.8%) (Figure 3.2). In Latvia this has slightly decreased between 2007 (5.4%) and 2011 (4.3%). Latvia lags significantly behind leading European countries such as Sweden (13.8%), Norway (12.1%), Denmark (13.5) and the Netherlands (9%).
In complementary data sources such as the Labour Force Survey, which looks at formal and non-formal adult education in a shorter time span of the last month, the participation rate in Latvia is 6.7%. This falls below the average of 11.1%, and is still far behind the 15% goal that Latvia seeks to reach by 2020. Similarly, in the Company Vocational Training Survey, which captures the continued vocational training of employees, around 27.2% participated in continued vocational training, which falls below the average of 40.8%. Regardless of which measure is being used for formal and non-formal adult education participation, there is room for Latvia to improve.
The intensity of participation in adult education has decreased over the past 10 years
Participation rates are imperfect indicators of adult learning effort, since the intensity of participation also matters. In Latvia, the mean instructional number of hours that adults participate in non-formal adult education is 109 hours, which is below the EU average of 118 hours and significantly below leading countries such as Denmark (167 hours) and Finland (156 hours) (Figure 3.3). Latvia is among a group of countries where the mean number of hours has dropped over the past 10 years, from 162 hours in 2007 to 109 hours in 2016. Ideally, countries would have both high levels of participation and high intensity in participation.
Figure 3.3. Mean instruction hours spent by participant in formal and non-formal education and training
EU countries, 2007, 2011, and 2016
Source: Eurostat (2019[11]), Adult Education Survey 2016 (database), Mean instruction hours spent by participant in education and training by sex, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
Adults with disadvantaged socio-demographic characteristics, labour market status and certain occupations are less likely to participate in adult education
Participation in non-formal and formal adult education varies by socio-demographic characteristics (Figure 3.4). While in other European countries, participation among men and women is similar, at around 45% on average, in Latvia, women (52%) are more likely to participate than men (43%). The participation trend across age cohorts in Latvia is similar to that found in other EU countries, with the younger cohort tending to participate more than those in older age cohorts. Regarding educational attainment, adults in Latvia and across the EU who have higher levels of education are participating significantly more than those with lower levels of education. This can be a reason for concern, as arguably adults with lower levels of education may be in greater need of adult learning opportunities. In addition, adults in cities are participating more than their counterparts in towns/suburbs and rural areas, where adults are likely to have lower levels of education.
Figure 3.4. Participation rates in non-formal and formal adult education by socio-demographic characteristics, 2016
Source: Eurostat (2019[12]), Adult Education Survey 2016 (database), Participation rate in education and training by age; Participation rate in education and training by educational attainment level; Participation rate in education and training by degree of urbanisation, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
Participation rates also vary greatly by labour market status and occupation (Figure 3.5). In Latvia, as across the EU, those who are employed are more likely to participate in adult learning than those who unemployed and those who are inactive. Certain occupations, such as managers, professionals, technicians and associates, have higher participation rates than others, such as clerical support workers, service and sales workers, skilled manual workers, and those in elementary occupations.
Figure 3.5. Participation rates in formal and non-formal adult education by labour market status and occupation, 2016
Source: Eurostat (2019[13]), Adult Education Survey 2016 (database), Participation rate in education and training by labour status; Participation rate in education and training by occupation, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
A lifelong learning culture in the workplace is less common in Latvian companies than in their European counterparts
Companies in Latvia fall behind their European counterparts in the extent to which they promote a lifelong learning culture in the workplace (Figure 3.6). While the share of Latvian companies (41%) recruiting new staff combined with specific training is similar to the EU average (42%), once the new staff are working there are fewer opportunities for further skills development and use. The share of Latvian companies internally reorganising themselves to better use the existing skills and competences of workers is around 34%, which falls below the European average of 59%. Similarly, the share of Latvian companies providing continuing vocational training of current staff is 27%, which is below the European average of 67%. Having a specific person or unit responsible for organising training, or having a training plan or budget, is critical for a lifelong learning culture in the workplace. In Latvia, the share of companies with such a person or unit in place is 16%, compared to a European average of 52%.
Figure 3.6. Lifelong learning culture in companies, 2015
Source: Eurostat (Eurostat, 2019[14]), Continuing Vocational Training Survey 2015 (database), Usual reaction to future skill needs by type of reaction and size class - % of all enterprises; Enterprises with CVT planning by type of planning, type of training provided and size class - % of all enterprises, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
Funding for adult learning from public, individual and employer sources is lower in Latvia than the EU average
Funding for adult learning can come from public, individual or employer sources. In Latvia, the share of adult learners partially or fully funded by public institutions to participate in formal and non-formal job-related training is 5.8%, which is slightly below the EU average of 6.8% and significantly behind other countries such as Denmark (15.2%), Spain (15.6%) and France (10.2%). In Latvia, the share of adult learners who paid partially or fully for the cost of non-formal activities is around 16.8%, which also falls below the average of 20.5% and is significantly behind other countries such as the Netherlands (25.3%), Switzerland (23.6%) and Finland (23%). Employers also play a critical role in funding adult learning. In Latvia, the cost of continuous vocational training as a percentage of total labour cost is the lowest (0.8%) in comparison to all EU countries, falling below the EU average (1.7%) and other leading countries such as Denmark (2.7%) and France (2.5%) (Figure 3.7).
Figure 3.7. Spending on adult learning by source
Note: Due to unavailability of data for Flanders, data for Belgium has been used.
Source: Calculations based on OECD (2015[8]), OECD Survey of Adults Skills (PIAAC) (database 2012, 2015), www.oecd.org/skills/piaac; Eurostat (2019[9]), Adult Education Survey 2016 (database), Participation rate in education and training (last 4 weeks) by NUTS 2 regions; Participation in education and training (last 12 months), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database (accessed 5 August 2019); OECD (2017[10]), OECD Digital Economy Outlook 2017, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264276284-en; Eurostat (2019[15]), Continuing Vocational Training Survey 2015 (database), Cost of CVT courses by type and size class - % of total labour cost of all enterprises; Participants in CVT courses by sex and size class - % of persons employed in all enterprises, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
Similar to other EU countries, large companies in Latvia spend a larger share of their total labour cost on training than SMEs. Since employees in SMEs tend to have lower adult learning participation rates, and most employees are in SMEs in Latvia, there seems to be a role for public policy to support the financial capacity of SMEs to provide adult learning. Overall, the spending rates on training in Latvian companies, regardless of their size, are significantly lower than in similar sized companies across the EU. There are also differences across sectors. Latvian companies in the ICT, financial and insurance sector spend the largest share of their total labour cost on training. This is followed by companies in scientific and service activities; construction; wholesale and retail trade, transport, accommodation and food service activities; and lastly industry. However, regardless of which sector Latvian companies operate in, they are all spending less than comparable companies across the EU (Figure 3.8). Although most employees in Latvia work in wholesale, retail, accommodation or food service activities (40%), this sector has one of the lowest spending rates in comparison to the other sectors.
Figure 3.8. Spending on adult learning by employer size and sector, 2015
Spending on continuous vocational training as a percentage of total labour cost
Note: The scientific and service activities include: real estate activities; professional, scientific and technical activities; administrative and support service activities; arts, entertainment and recreation; and other service activities.
The distribution of employees in active enterprises across sectors are: ICT, financial and insurance activities (7%); scientific and service activities (23%); construction (10%); wholesale and retail trade, transport, accommodation and food service activities (40%); and industry (except construction) (20%).
Source: Eurostat (2019[15]), Continuing Vocational Training Survey 2015 (database), Cost of CVT courses by type and size class - % of total labour cost of all enterprises, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database .
Opportunities to improve Latvia’s performance
Latvia has several opportunities to strengthen a lifelong learning culture in Latvia:
1. Raising awareness about adult learning.
2. Reducing barriers to adult learning.
3. Expanding the provision of adult learning.
4. Raising the quality of adult learning opportunities.
Opportunity 1: Raising awareness about adult learning
Adult motivation to engage in learning is a key determinant of observed participation levels in adult learning. Adults have both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to engage in learning: intrinsic motivation can be learning for the sake of learning; extrinsic motivation can be learning for certain benefits (e.g. better job, promotion, higher wages, social connections) or in order to adhere to requirements (e.g. obligatory participation in active labour market programmes, employer mandated). Motivation is considered to be key for successful adult education engagement (Carr and Claxton, 2002[16]), even more significant than socio-economic background (White, 2012[17]).
Raising awareness about the potential benefits of adult learning and how to get involved is critical for fostering adult learning. Individuals may not be aware of the benefits of participating in adult learning programmes, or of how programmes differ in quality and relevance and how to finance participation. Employers may not be aware of how megatrends, such as globalisation, demographics and technological changes, will affect their future skill needs, and what this implies for their learning needs. Even if they are motivated to provide training and know what kind of training they need, they may not be aware of the relative quality and relevance of programmes on offer or of financial support for participation (e.g. tax subsidies).
Policy makers need to ensure that relevant, timely and comprehensive skills data and information is generated (see Chapter 5). This information needs to feed into awareness raising initiatives and must reach end users in a tailored and user-friendly form. Targeted guidance and counselling services are needed to ensure that end users know how to interpret and act upon the information.
Raising the level of motivation among adults
A significant share of adults in Latvia lack motivation to learn. Around 35% of adults reported that they did not participate in adult learning and did not want to participate in adult learning (Figure 3.9). While this share is lower than the EU average, it remains still significant when considering that Latvia has a high urgency to participate in adult learning due to the combined pressures of population ageing, automation and structural change, and globalisation (OECD, 2019[6]).
Figure 3.9. Adults not willing to participate in education and training, 2016
Source: Eurostat (2019[18]), Adult Education survey 2016 (database), Distribution of the will to participate, or participate more, in education and training, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
However, there are some significant differences among adults who are unmotivated to participate in adult learning and those who are motivated. They differ in terms of their age, education background, labour market status and where they live. Unmotivated adults are, on average, older, with the average age 49, while the average age among motivated adults is 41. Unmotivated adults are more likely to have lower levels of education, with a greater share having attained only upper secondary education, while motivated adults are more likely to have tertiary education degrees. Unmotivated adults are more likely to be inactive and unemployed, while motivated adults are usually employed. Unmotivated adults also tend to live more in towns, suburbs and rural areas, while motivated adults live in cities (Figure 3.10).
Figure 3.10. Comparison of motivated and unmotivated adults in adult learning in Latvia, 2016
Note: Motivated are those who participated in the past 12 months and would have liked to participate more. Unmotivated are those who did not participate in the past 12 months and also would not have liked to participate in any activities. Levels of education: Primary/Secondary (ISCED 1 - 2) Upper Secondary (ISCED 3 programme duration of 2 years and more, sequential access to next ISCED 3 programmes only; ISCED 3 programme duration of 2 years and more, terminal or access to ISCED 4 programmes only; ISCED 3 with access to ISCED 5, 6 or 7; programme of duration of 2 years and more, without possible distinction of access to other ISCED levels). Post-secondary non-tertiary (ISCED 4). Tertiary (ISCED 5, 6, 7, 8).
Source: Calculations based on Eurostat (2019[19]), Adult Education Survey 2016 (database), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
In order to ensure motivation for learning during adulthood, it is imperative to start in the early years. As discussed in Chapter 2, the quality of teaching and the curriculum, and the engagement of students with different skill and motivation levels, are important factors. A positive learning experience during childhood fosters a positive attitude towards learning and increases the probability of seeking out and taking up learning opportunities later during adulthood. This is particularly relevant for students who come from disadvantaged backgrounds, such as those with low socio-economic family status, immigrant backgrounds and parents with low education levels. The prospects of better work and career chances, as well as the possibility to actively participate as a citizen in society, are also important factors to stimulate motivation for learning in adult life.
Some policies are shown to be effective in raising the motivation of adults to participate in adult learning. These include raising awareness about adult learning and providing guidance about learning opportunities (European Commission, 2015[20]).
There are a number of different channels through which adults can learn about adult learning possibilities free of charge. These include face-to-face interactions, Internet, mail, phone, fax, posters and leaflets. In Latvia, as in many other EU countries, most individuals find information through other institutions, followed by education and training institutions, employers, employment services, and trade unions/work councils. Compared to other EU countries, a larger share of Latvians report that they receive free information from other institutions and employment services. The opposite is the case for education/training institutions, employers and trade unions/work councils, from which, compared to other EU countries, a smaller share of Latvians report receiving free information (Figure 3.11). Education/training institutions in Latvia could potentially play a more prominent role in providing information on adult learning.
Figure 3.11. Distribution of sources from which participants have received free of charge information about learning possibilities, 2016
Note: Education/training institutions refer to schools, colleges, universities, vocational education and training centres, institutions for adult learning and validation centres. Other institutions refers to all other institutions not mentioned in the figure.
Source: Calculations based on Eurostat (2019[19]), Adult Education Survey 2016 (database), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
In Latvia, there have been a number of awareness raising initiatives, including online platforms, such as www.niid.lv, www.muzizglitiba.lv, www.macibaspieaugusajiem.lv, www.profesijupasaule.lv, www.latvijaskvalifikacijas.lv/, www.nva.gov.lv and www.talakizglitiba.lv (Table 3.2). These provide individuals with information about different adult learning opportunities. Some of these are tailored to specific target groups, such as www.macibaspieaugusajiem.lv which is aimed at those employed and www.nva.gov.lv which is aimed at those unemployed. There are also websites that target adult education providers, such as the Electronic Platform for Adult Learning in Europe (EPALE). This platform aims to build a strong adult education sector by connecting adult education providers. A comprehensive campaign initiative conducted by !MOOZ within the project “Improvement of Professional Competence of Employees” (www.macibaspieaugusajiem.lv) is aimed at those who are employed and at least 25 years-old, as well as employers, career advisors, and adult learning professionals, among others. The government has a number of awareness raising initiatives that focus on employers, with specific programmes, such as SO 1.2.2., raising awareness among employers to promote training to their employees to facilitate the adoption of innovative practices. This programme focuses specifically on certain sectors, such as manufacturing, ICT and the tourism industry (action No. 1.2.2.1.). Another programme (action No. 1.2.2.3.) focuses on the ICT industry and other industries in the field of non-technological innovations.
Table 3.2. Awareness raising initiatives
During discussions with the OECD, stakeholders mentioned the need for a co-ordination body that ensures that these different awareness raising initiatives are complementary. Such a co-ordination body could also ensure that these initiatives reach under-represented groups, in particular unmotivated adults. While there is around a 50% chance of motivated adults hearing about learning opportunities through various channels (e.g. education institutions, employers, guidance counsellor, media, books), only about 4.77% of unmotivated adults reported having received any information about adult learning opportunities (Figure 3.12). This suggests that more needs to be done to improve the effectiveness of those channels and to tailor them specifically to the background of unmotivated adults, who, as mentioned, are more likely to be older, have lower levels of education, be unemployed or inactive, and live outside the cities. The Qualifica Programme in Portugal provides an example how low-skilled adults were targeted with multiple communication channels, and how information was tailored to the specific background of each user with a new user online tool (Box 3.2). Additional public awareness examples that Latvia could consider, which differ in focus, are featured in (Table 3.3).
Figure 3.12. Information about adult learning reaching adults by motivation level, 2016
Note: Motivated: respondents who participated in formal or non-formal education but wanted to participate more; Unmotivated: respondents who did not participate in formal or non-formal education and training and did not want to participate.
Received information: includes both respondents who received free of charge information or advice/help on learning opportunities from institutions/organisations and those who paid for information or advice/help on learning opportunities from institutions/organisations.
Not received information: respondents who did not receive any information or advice/help on learning opportunities from institutions/organisations.
Source: Calculations based on Eurostat (2019[19]), Adult Education Survey 2016 (database), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
Table 3.3. Public awareness raising campaigns and their focus in selected OECD countries
Source: “OECD Adult Learning Policy Questionnaire from OECD” (2019[6]), Getting Skills Right: Future-Ready Adult Learning Systems, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264311756-en.
Simply providing information through these awareness raising channels may not be enough, as even when information reaches unmotivated adults they may not fully know what to do with it and how to put it into practice. Due to the great number of adult education and training providers, it may be difficult for potential learners to know which adult learning programmes are most relevant for them. It is thus important to complement awareness raising initiatives with guidance and counselling services.
Box 3.2. Relevant example: Raising the level of motivation among adults
Public awareness campaign in Portugal
In March 2016, Portugal’s government launched the Qualifica Programme, which is an integrated strategy to foster the training and qualification of adults in Portugal. The aims for the programme are to raise the qualification level of adults, increase digital and functional literacy, and better align training provision with labour market needs. The campaign includes 100 video clips, each one to two minutes long, describing real-life situations and the impact of adult learning. The Qualifica Programme also has a web portal (Portal Qualifica) that provides access to a range of information on adult learning through multiple channels, including social media. Qualifica Passport, created in 2017, is a user-oriented online tool and platform that provides information on an individual’s own educational and training record. It also directs users to potentially relevant learning opportunities based on the qualifications they have already acquired. This important tool could play a key role as a one-stop shop for information on adult learning.
Source: OECD (2018[21]), Skills Strategy Implementation Guidance for Portugal: Strengthening the Adult-Learning System, OECD Skills Studies, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264298705-en; Maria Maria João Alves (2018[22]), The National Qualifications System, Instruments to support Qualification and Lifelong Learning, www.poch.portugal2020.pt/pt-pt/Candidaturas/Documents/ESF_TCN_NQS_RVCC_NOV2018.pdf; Qualifica (2019[23]), Programa Qualifica, www.qualifica.gov.pt/#/programaQualifica.
Recommendation for raising the level of motivation among adults
Co-ordinate awareness raising campaigns about the value of adult learning through a central body that fosters co-operation across ministries and between government and stakeholders. Such awareness raising campaigns (e.g. “know your rights”) targeting unmotivated adults should provide information about the different available adult learning opportunities, how to access them and their benefits. Such a body should also develop and implement strategies how to engage and encourage unmotivated adults to raise their participation in adult learning.
Improving guidance and counselling
Guidance and counselling are defined as “a range of activities such as information, assessment, orientation and advice to assist learners, trainers and other staff to make choices relating to education and training programmes or employment opportunities.” (Decision No 1720/2006/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council). These activities can include: counselling for personal, career development or educational guidance; assessment of skills and mental health; information on learning and labour market opportunities; consultation with peers, relatives or educators; vocational preparation; and referrals to learning or career specialists (Raschauer and Resch, 2016[24]).
In Latvia, the share of adults receiving guidance and counselling through personal means such as face-to-face interactions and distant interactions with a person (Internet, phone, email, other media) is higher than other impersonal means, such as computer interfaces (e.g. websites, online self-assessment tools) or materials (e.g. books, posters, websites, leaflets, TV programmes). In contrast to the EU average, the personal means, which would be part of guidance and counselling, are more widely applied in Latvia than the impersonal means (Figure 3.13). This may be a reflection of individual preferences or what is on offer in Latvia. Being a relatively small country in comparison to other EU countries, a stronger focus on a personal approach may be more feasible.
Figure 3.13. Information and help regarding adult learning provided personally and impersonally, 2016
Note: The question is about free of charge information or advice/help only.
Source: Calculations based on Eurostat (2019[19]), Adult Education Survey 2016 (database), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
In Latvia, guidance and counselling services are provided primarily by the State Education Development Agency and the State Employment Agency. There are also tertiary education institutions and some private providers.
The State Education Development Agency provides career guidance services in general education and vocational education and training (VET) schools through, for example, the provision of information about education and career opportunities, arranging meetings with employers, informing parents, and conducting group consultations. Currently, half of schools, around 422, are enrolled in a seven-year career guidance project, which is 85% funded with European Structural Funds until 2020. Each school has a career guidance counsellor or career guidance teacher. The counsellor is a trained professional with a master’s degree and can provide individual consultations, while the guidance teacher is a regular teacher who has received 72 hours of guidance training. The latter are mostly used in the schools.
The State Employment Agency also provides career and guidance services across 26 cities and 4 other areas. While their focus is on unemployed adults, others can also benefit from their services. Agency staff are sometimes invited to talk directly to students in schools and provide labour market relevant information. There are a total of 71 career guidance consultants, of which 37 are funded by European Structural Funds until 2022. Career and guidance services include profiling individual background, interests, motivation and suitability; providing information on vacancies and labour market trends; referring to appropriate training programmes; and supporting career planning, job search and interview preparation.
In tertiary education, institutions are responsible for providing career and guidance services. Although the Higher Education Law Article 50(5) states that every student is entitled to receive such services, in practice only a few public and private institutions have career centres or offer services in an integrated way, such as the University of Latvia, Riga Technical University, Riga Stradiņš University, BA School of Business and Finance, Rēzekne Academy of Technologies, RISEBA University Applied Sciences, and ISMA. Services are typically provided free of charge for all students, prospective students and, in some universities, for graduates. Services include the provision of information on current job vacancies, support for finding internships, counselling about the choice of study programmes, company visits and activities promoting student entrepreneurship.
There are also private career and guidance services that may cost between EUR 30 and EUR 75, and that tend to be used by adults with high education levels.
Extrinsic motivation has been promoted through requirements for professional development in specific (mainly regulated) professions (for example, teachers’ professional development on children's rights).
During the bilateral and focus group meetings with OECD officials, some challenges were identified with respect to guidance and counselling services. The first relates to the long-term capacity for guidance and counselling if the European Structural Funds run out, as these cover a significant portion of the operational expenses. There is currently no specific plan for what will happen afterwards and how these services will be funded. It is critical to explore alternative funding mechanisms, such as co-funding across levels of government, between state and municipalities, or between government and stakeholders (e.g. employers). The second challenge relates to the difficulty of reaching under-represented groups, in particular unmotivated adults. While services such as the State Employment Agency receive adults when they engage, outreach activities are mostly invitation-based (e.g. school) or specific events, and unmotivated adults may not be reached effectively through such means alone. Additional effort would be needed to go to the places where unmotivated adults can be found, especially in rural areas. While part of this challenge may be addressed by improving staff resources through sustainable financing, current staff could also be supported by professional development activities to understand what kind of approaches are most effective in reaching out to under-represented adults. Current efforts to provide more e-services in counselling (e.g. online self-assessment test, online modules on how to draft a motivation letter and prepare for an interview, portal on vacancies) could be useful if they are tailored specifically to under-represented adults.
There are some international relevant examples that point to lessons that could be relevant for Latvia. For example, in Finland the guidance and counselling system covers all parts of lifelong learning, from early childhood education and care (ECEC) to adult learning, and there are targeted programmes for people at risk or those who are out of the labour market and out of education. The ministries of education and employment established a national steering group for guidance and counselling to strengthen cross-sectoral and multi-professional co-operation between key actors and stakeholders. In anticipation of the shortfall in finances when funding from the European Social Funds (ESF) ends, the Finnish Government has already created an action plan that seeks to establish permanent One-Stop Guidance Centres in co-operation with the Ministry of Finance and various governmental ministries. The municipalities, the Finnish National Agency for Education, and the Ministry of Education and Culture will together finance career guidance in educational institutions (Box 3.3).
Box 3.3. Relevant examples: Improving guidance and counselling
ESF project Youth Guarantee measure 7.2.1.1 / 15 / I / 001 “Career Counselling” in Latvia
The aim of this project is to provide support for registered unemployed young people in matters of employability, retraining and career planning. The target group is young unemployed persons aged 15 to 29 (inclusive) who are registered with the State Employment Agency and who have not completed full-time study programmes as defined by the Law on Higher Education Institutions. Types of career services offered by the State Employment Agency include individual career counselling, individual diagnostic career counselling, group career counselling and group informative career counselling.
Career counselling sessions determine professional aptitude and provide an assessment of training abilities before enrolling in courses and retraining activities. The career counsellor also provides
psychological support and educates the client on career choice and planning issues. An average of three career counselling sessions are available within the Youth Guarantee Support Career Counselling Activity.
Source: State Employment Agency (2017[25]), ESF projekta „Jauniešu garantijas” pasākums „Karjeras konsultācijas” (ESF Project "Youth Guarantee" Career Counselling), www.nva.gov.lv/index.php?cid=433&mid=548&txt=4623.
Guidance and counselling services in Finland
Everyone in Finland is entitled to guidance and counselling services, regardless of whether they are studying, working, unemployed or outside of the labour market. Finland’s guidance system covers all parts of lifelong learning, from ECEC to adult education. There are also targeted programmes for people at risk or those who are out of the labour market and out of lifelong learning. The ministries of education and employment established a national steering group for guidance and counselling to strengthen cross-sectoral and multi-professional co-operation between key actors and stakeholders (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2012[26]). One-Stop Guidance Centres and efforts to digitalise services have been carried out with ESF funding, and were jointly initiated by the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment, the Ministry of Education and Culture, and the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. Once ESF funding ends, the Finnish Government’s Action Plan seeks to establish permanent One-Stop Guidance Centres in co-operation with the Ministry of Finance and other governmental ministries. Municipalities, the Finnish National Agency for Education and the Ministry of Education and Culture finance career guidance in educational institutions. Career guidance services in public employment and the business sector are financed by the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment. Over the next three years, EUR 30 million will be used for the digitalisation of public employment services.
Source: European Commission (2012[27]), Strategies for improving participation in and awareness of adult learning, Directorate-General for Education and Culture, https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/024feeda-773e-4249-8808-158716e4296c; Finnish National Agency for Education (2012[26]), Lifelong Guidance in Finland, www.cimo.fi/instancedata/prime_product_julkaisu/cimo/embeds/cimowwwstructure/25493_Lifelong_guidance_in_Finland.pdf.
Recommendations for improving guidance and counselling
Make guidance and counselling services financially sustainable. Evaluate current funding mechanisms in terms of effectiveness, equity and alignment with priorities. Consider alternative financing entities, such as municipalities or employers, and cost-saving possibilities through collaboration among public providers (public employment services, State Education Development Agency) and private providers, as well as a more cost-efficient blended career guidance and counselling approach that combines online and offline formats.
Improve guidance and counselling services through providing ongoing training for guidance counsellors so that they can provide services tailored to the specific needs of individuals, reach out to and effectively engage under-represented adults (e.g. unmotivated, low skilled, rural residents).
Opportunity 2: Reducing barriers to adult learning
Even when there is motivation to participate in adult learning, external barriers can still make participation difficult for adults. According to the Adult Education Survey, the most significant barriers in Latvia are finances, time and family responsibilities. Financial barriers can refer to the direct (e.g. training fee) and indirect costs (e.g. transportation fee to get to training; lower wage from lower working hours due to training) of participating in training. Time barriers can be due to scheduling challenges at work or at home. An employer may not allow the employee to take the time to participate during working hours as that constitutes a loss of working time. The adult learning programme may also be offered during times that are difficult to access, such as during working hours instead of evenings or weekends. It may be difficult for adults with family responsibilities to access adult learning programmes if they cannot find or afford alternative care options for those under their care (e.g. children, elderly).
In Latvia, financial barriers were reported as the most common barrier to accessing adult learning (Figure 3.14). This was the case across four different age groups (25-34 years; 35-44 years; 45-54 years; 55-64 years). For the first three age groups it was around 50%, while for the oldest group it was around 41%. The second most common barrier adults faced was a scheduling conflict. For the first three age groups this was around 46%, while for the oldest age group it was around 30%. The third most common barrier was having family responsibilities. For 25-34 year-olds this is around 37%, and for 35-44 year-olds it was 41%, which reflects that they are most likely to face caring responsibilities for young children or elderly relatives. Only 24% of 45-54 year-olds and 16% of 55-64 year-olds stated family responsibilities as a barrier.
Figure 3.14. Latvia: Three most common obstacles to participation in education and training by age, 2016
Source: Eurostat (2019[28]), Obstacles to participation in education and training by age, Adult Education Survey 2016 (database), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
Providing financial means to reduce the cost of adult learning
There are a number of different financial instruments that can help reduce the cost of adult learning. These can be largely classified into four different categories: 1) supply-side measures focusing on education and training providers; 2) demand-side measures targeting individuals; 3) demand-side measures targeting employers; and 4) comprehensive measures covering both supply and demand sides. Examples of each can be found in Table 3.4, and are further explained in greater detail with relevant country examples in OECD (2017[29]).
Table 3.4. Financial incentives for steering education and training
Note: Not all measures can be easily classified into these categories. Measures designed to nudge behaviour on the supply side often have repercussions on the demand side, and the other way around.
Source: OECD (2017[29]), Financial Incentives for Steering Education and Training, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264272415-en; Müller, N. and F. Behringer (2012[30]), “Subsidies and Levies as Policy Instruments to Encourage Employer- Provided Training”, OECD Education Working Paper No. 80, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k97b083v1vb-en.
There are a number of financial incentives in Latvia. According to the Latvian Labour Law, an employee who studies at any education institution can receive study leave with or without retention of work salary. While this law applies to all employees, regardless of whether they are under collective labour contract agreements or not, employees rely on the agreement of their employers in order to benefit. There are a number of adult learning measures (i.e. active labour market programmes) offered free for unemployed adults. In addition, unemployed adults may benefit from regional mobility support measures that cover transportation or living costs if training is at least 15 km away from their declared residence. Adults who wish to participate in tertiary education programmes in Latvia can receive study loans, but these are only applicable to full-time study programmes. In adult vocational education programmes (see SO 8.4.1. programme in Annex Table 3.A.2), most costs are covered, but participants are still expected to pay 10% of the participation cost. An adult who becomes an employee in a government or medical institution after participating in a tertiary education or vocational education programme may be eligible for a loan forgiveness programme. All tax paying adults who have paid towards their education may receive a partial reimbursement for these costs.
During the bilateral meetings, focus group meetings and workshops, stakeholders emphasised the importance of targeting better financial incentives at employers. This was also highlighted in a Latvia country report written by a national expert (Maslo, 2017[31]). One specific idea that stakeholders proposed was the introduction of training levies. Such levy schemes are designed to pool resources from employers to pay for training. This can help overcome employer concerns that other employers will poach staff that they have spent money on training. Through the levy, funding from employers who invest little in training is allocated to those who invest a lot. There are different levy schemes that Latvia could consider. Common ones include revenue-generating schemes, levy-grant schemes, levy-exemption schemes, and cost-reimbursement scheme. See Table 3.5 for an overview of the advantages, disadvantages and relevant country examples. Countries differ in the amount of the levy and whether it’s a flat rate for all employers of all sizes or whether it is adjusted based on employer size and sector. There are also cases of sharing the levy between employers and employees, or of having a fixed lump sum, although these are less common (Table 3.6). In most cases, levy-grant schemes are set up within the framework of sectoral agreements. The adoption of a levy scheme depends largely on a country’s specific context and the negotiations that have taken place.
The advantages of levy schemes are that they do not require public funds and that when compulsory they can raise both awareness and commitment to providing training. They also secure a stable and ongoing source of funding, regardless of business cycle and availability of public funding (e.g. government, EU). However, there is a risk that employers may see the levy as an additional tax burden, which is why it is critical to engage employers early on in the governance of the levy scheme so that they can participate in the decision-making process of how the fund is designed and implemented. Strong tripartite relationships are a critical feature of successful levy systems. In order to increase ownership of key actors, it may thus be easier to initially start the levy scheme in a particular sector or geographical area (Smith and Billett, 2004[32]). This will also allow for the levy scheme to specifically target the skill needs of the sector or geographical area. Attention should be paid to ensure that the benefits of levies are spread out for companies of all sizes, in particular for SMEs, as well as benefit target groups at risk (Müller and Behringer, 2012[30]), rather than only managers pursuing MBAs.
Table 3.5. Types of training levy
Note: Countries often have hybrid schemes with funds raised through levies and distributed through grants and direct subsidies.
Source: OECD (2017[29]), Financial Incentives for Steering Education and Training, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264272415-en; Müller, N. and F. Behringer (2012[30]), “Subsidies and Levies as Policy Instruments to Encourage Employer- Provided Training”, OECD Education Working Paper No. 80, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k97b083v1vb-en.
Table 3.6. Training levies in selected OECD countries
Note: *Canada (Quebec) and South Africa exempt the obligatory 1% of payroll contribution for firms with a payroll under a certain threshold. **Denmark has a lump sum of DKK 2 702 per full-time employee per year paid to the Employers’ Educational Grant (Arbejdsgivernes Uddannelsesbidrag, AUB), which reimburse wages paid to employees undergoing off-the-job training.
Source: OECD (2019[6]), Getting Skills Right: Future-Ready Adult Learning Systems, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264311756-en; Müller, N. and F. Behringer (2012[30]), “Subsidies and Levies as Policy Instruments to Encourage Employer- Provided Training”, in OECD Education Working Paper No. 80, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k97b083v1vb-en; UNESCO (2018[33]), Funding skills development: the private sector contribution, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261984; OECD (2017[29]), Financial Incentives for Steering Education and Training, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264272415-en.
Box 3.4. Relevant examples: Providing financial means to reduce the cost of adult learning
Training initiative to support innovation in companies in Latvia
The Ministry of Economics continues to support a variety of activities aimed at increasing entrepreneurial and workforce skills, including awareness building and informational campaigns. The programmes “Technology training” (2016-2022) and “Non-technology training and training to attract investors” (2016-2020) promote training opportunities for employees so that they can more easily adopt innovation in their companies. The first programme has received EUR 18 million in EU funding and will first focus on companies in the manufacturing, ICT and tourism sector, followed by companies in the ICT, manufacturing and global business service centres sector. The second programme has received EUR 6.9 million in EU funding and focuses on the ICT sector and any other industry sector determined by the Latvian Investment and Development Agency and the Latvian Chamber of Commerce and Industry. Industry associations ensure that the training meets the needs of companies and those who are self-employed. Agreements have been signed between industry associations, training centres and companies. Training is provided in enterprises by training centres, individual experts or in training centres in Latvia and abroad.
Developing the professional competencies of employees in Latvia
The aim of the programme “To Develop Professional Competencies of Employees” (December 2016-December 2022) is to provide support for the improvement of professional competences of employed young persons (aged 17-24) and employed adults (aged 25+), with a special focus on workers in high social risk groups, including those over 45 and the low skilled. The scope of the project includes support for 38 627 employed people. The results so far are: 1) employed persons aged 17+ with low education level – 9 934 people; and 2) employed young persons aged 17+ with the exception of those with a low education level – 14 568 people. The budget is EUR 27 million, including funding from the ESF (among other institutions) of EUR 23 million, and the state budget of EUR 4 million. The body responsible for implementation is the State Education Development Agency, with the involvement of local municipalities, education institutions and the State Employment agency. Through this programme, adults can participate in continuing vocational education, vocational training and non-formal education programmes, as well as receive career counselling services and the evaluation of professional competences acquired outside of formal education settings. The implementation of additional support measures is targeted at people who are at risk of social exclusion. Such support measures include an assistant for disabled people and support for regional mobility for low-income workers. VET schools, in particular VET Competence Centres, have been designated as major vocational training and continuing vocational education providers. The state has invested heavily in their infrastructure and in the modernisation of their programmes.
In February 2017, the Adult Education Governing Board made the first call for applications in four priority sectors: construction, metalworking, mechanical engineering; wood industry; electronic and optical industry; and information and communication technologies. For the second call of applications the board approved 12 sectors (including 4 sectors from the first call): chemical industry, energy, food industry and agriculture, manufacture of textiles, clothing, leather, and leather products, printing and media technologies, catering service and tourism; transport and logistics; food industry and agriculture, construction, metalworking, mechanical engineering, wood industry, and electronic and optical products, information and communication technologies sector, as well as courses for the employed in the culture sector. For the third call of applications, 400 education programmes in 11 sectors were approved by the board. The fourth call took place on 28 June 2019, with nearly 800 programmes available for adults and applications being submitted online. Some 17 000 adults started education and training during rounds one to three. Men made up 57% of participants and women 47%, and 21% had low levels of education. About 10% have started education in vocational further education programmes, 11% in professional improvement programmes and 79% in non-formal education programmes. Approximately 12 000 adults have already finished their education and training programme.
Source: Eurydice, (2019[34]), National Reforms in Vocational Education and Training and Adult Learning, https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/content/national-reforms-vocational-education-and-training-and-adult-learning-34_en.
Employer reimbursement fund in Denmark
In the Danish VET system, funding is shared between the state and employers. The school-based part of VET is financed by the state, and companies fund the work-based training, as well as the wages that apprentices receive during the entire VET programme. The school-based parts of VET programmes are financed by the state based on a taximeter system (pay per student). All companies, both public and private, have to pay a fixed annual amount into the Employers’ Reimbursement Fund for each of their employees (in 2013, this was around EUR 400). The fund then reimburses a company for apprentice wages when the apprentice is undertaking the school-based part of a VET programme. The amount of the Employers’ Educational Grant (Arbejdsgivernes Uddannelsesbidrag, AUB) is based on the Danish labour market supplementary pension fund contributions (Arbejdsmarkedets Tillægspension, ATP) that the employers have paid for the quarter. For every quarterly contribution of DKK 852 (Danish kroner) (around EUR 114) to ATP Livslang Pension (Lifelong Pension), employers must pay a contribution of DKK 675.50 (around EUR 90) to the AUB. In 2018, the contribution to the AUB was DKK 2 702 (around EUR 362) per full-time employee. In 2018, the quarterly contribution to the AUB per full-time employee was DKK 675.50 (around EUR 90). Every first and fiftieth employee is deducted in the calculation of a contribution to the AUB. Contribution to the AUB is mandatory for all employees on the Danish labour market and entitles employers to apply for reimbursements regarding trainees. A maximum of 80% of the trainee’s travel expenses will be subsidised based on the cheapest form of public transportation. If the trainee is posted abroad for at least one month, the AUB will pay the difference between the trainee’s Danish salary and the salary paid abroad.
Source: OECD (2014[35]), OECD Economic Surveys: Denmark 2013, https://doi.org/10.1787/eco_surveys-dnk-2013-en; Virk (2019[36]); Arbejdsgivernes Uddannelsesbidrag (Employers' Educational Grants – AUB), https://indberet.virk.dk/arbejdsgivernes-uddannelsesbidrag-english/contribution-rates.
Recommendation for providing financial means to reduce the cost of adult learning
Explore piloting a shared training fund in some sectors that employers contribute to and can draw from. Engage employers from the beginning to ensure that there is ownership for such a fund. After the pilot, evaluate the effectiveness of such a shared fund and whether it is worthwhile being extended to other sectors.
Encouraging employers to enable participation in adult learning during working hours
For employed adults, finding the time for adult learning can be challenging. For this target group, participation in adult learning could be raised through creating incentives for employers to invest and support adult learning for their employees.
In Latvia, the Labour Law Article 137(2) stipulates that employees may count their training time as part of their working hours. However, in practice some employees still face challenges in undertaking training during working hours (Table 3.7). A common challenge among SMEs, which make up most enterprises in Latvia, is that even when training itself is financed through government funding, employers may not feel that they can afford employees to be missing from work to participate in training. It may not be easy to find a replacement for those times or to distribute the workload among their reduced number of employees, especially when specific skills are required or when the company is struggling to operate. In such circumstances, employers may discourage their employees from undertaking training during working hours and instead ask them to find a programme outside of working hours. This, however, has other challenges, such as competing family responsibilities (see next section).
Table 3.7. Employer support for the education and training of their employees
Source: Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia (2018), Labour Force Survey.
To address the issue of employees missing work, a payroll subsidy could be introduced for the time that an employee misses work due to training, which could then be used to either hire temporary staff to provide cover or to pay more to the remaining employees who take on additional tasks. This could also be funded by a training levy, as explored in the previous section.
To complement these efforts, Latvia could consider introducing a training obligation to ensure that employers provide or support training for their employees. This was an idea that stakeholders proposed during the missions of the OECD. There are a number of countries that have already implemented a training obligation, either through legislation or collective bargaining (Table 3.8). In Flanders (Belgium), a legal requirement is in place to make training obligatory for employees (Box 3.5).
Table 3.8. Training obligation
Training other than health and safety
Note: Countries that had missing answers to the questionnaire: Australia, Austria, Finland, Germany, Greece, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland.
Source: OECD Adult Learning Policy Questionnaire from OECD (2019[6]), Getting Skills Right: Future-Ready Adult Learning Systems, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264311756-en.
There have been various studies analysing the effectiveness of a training obligation. Some evidence suggests that a training obligation is more effective (Rynes and Rosen, 1995[37]) and leads to higher levels of motivation (Baldwin and Magjuka, 1991[38]) than not having such an obligation. These outcomes are explained by the participants believing that training is mandatory because it is important (Tsai and Tai, 2003[39]). Research points to some factors that seem to determine whether a training obligation succeeds in not only raising training participation, but also in ensuring that training participants transfer learned content to their work. Adult learners should be given some freedom to decide between options among a number of programmes so that they feel autonomous and self-determined (Rosen et al., 2014[40]). In order to ensure that these choices are aligned with labour market needs, the choice could be offered among labour market relevant programmes. Adult learners should also participate in the decision-making process associated with the training. This includes providing feedback on training design in terms of curricula and format and how mandatory training participation requirements are implemented (Gegenfurtner et al., 2016[41]). This suggests that simply introducing a training obligation is not enough; it needs to be implemented in such a way that adult learners are engaged in the whole process so that they feel they have a say and are not just subjected to a requirement. Furthermore, simply ensuring that participants are in training is not sufficient, there must also be efforts to raise adult learning quality (see Opportunity 4: Raising the quality of adult learning opportunities).
Box 3.5. Relevant example: Encouraging employers to enable participation in adult learning during working hours
Legal training requirement in Flanders (Belgium)
To improve the accessibility of adult education and training, a national law on “Workable work” (2017) (Werkbaar werk) introduced the obligation for employers to provide an average of five days of training per year, replacing a legal obligation to spend a share of the wage cost on training. The law aims to encourage employers to invest more in employee training by creating a new legal framework. In abiding by this law, employers are part of upskilling the population of Flanders. Very small enterprises can be exempt from the mandatory training. In the new framework, if there is no collective agreement on the issue/training, every employee is entitled to two training days per year. If the training is given outside of working hours, employees will be paid for the extra hours, but at the regular rate and without a bonus.
Source: OECD (2019[42]), OECD Skills Strategy Flanders: Assessment and Recommendations, OECD Skills Studies, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264309791-en; Werkbaar Werk (2019[43]), Wat is Werkbaar werk (What is Workable Work), www.werkbaarwerk.be/werkbaarwerk/pagina/wat-werkbaar-werk.
Recommendation for encouraging employers to enable participation in adult learning during working hours
Explore the viability of introducing a mandatory requirement for employers to provide or support participation in adult learning for their employees. Employers and unions should be part of the decision-making process of how such a requirement is implemented in practice.
Providing complementary social policies to make adult learning feasible for those with family responsibilities
Those with family responsibilities, in particular adults with young children, may find it difficult to combine raising children with participating in training, especially when there are no childcare options available during training times. As discussed in Chapter 2, ECEC places only become available for most parents when their children are about 1.5 years old. If there are no alternative care options, such as extended family members or others, it may not be feasible for adults caring for their young children to participate in training. Providing childcare options near the training site for adult learners may make it easier for parents to participate. In Wales, adults can receive financial support to cover childcare costs during participation in education and training (Box 3.6).
Box 3.6. Relevant example: Providing complementary social policies to make adult learning feasible for those with family responsibilities
Childcare support for adult learners in Wales
Learners in Wales can apply for a Financial Contingency Fund (FCF). The FCF is provided by the Welsh Government to assist students, including adult learners, in financial difficulties. This fund is not for students to pay their study fees, but for childcare, Internet access, equipment, travel and assessment costs for diagnosis of a specific learning difficulty, such as dyslexia. The Welsh Government allocates GBP 7 million (British pounds) a year for the FCF. National priority groups for the fund include learners on a low income and those with children (especially single parents). Universities determine their own policy for allocating FCFs.
Source: Daycare Trust (2007[44]), Childcare for adult learners in further education, www.nuffieldfoundation.org/sites/default/files/files/daycare%20trust(1).pdf; The Open University (2016[45]), Guidance notes for Financial Contingency Fund, www2.open.ac.uk/students/_data/documents/helpcentre/funding-your-studies/welsh-financial-contingency-guidance-notes.pdf.
Recommendation for providing complementary social policies to make adult learning feasible for those with family responsibilities
Promote collaboration between adult learning providers and municipalities to provide childcare options near to adult learning programmes. This could mean expanding already existing childcare options to make them available during times of adult learning (e.g. evening or weekend). Explore whether, in the context of the territorial reform, the financial capacity of each consolidated municipality could be elevated to provide expanded childcare services. In cases where no public childcare option is available during times of adult learning, consider subsidising the cost of alternative private childcare options for low-income adult learners.
Opportunity 3: Expanding the provision of adult learning
As illustrated in Figure 3.2, the participation of Latvian adults in adult learning is above the EU average in informal learning and non-formal learning, while participation in formal adult education is below the average. Improving the provision of adult learning opportunities in formal adult education could raise the overall participation rate. Existing institutions such as VET schools and tertiary education institutions could play a greater role in this as they are important formal adult education providers that provide a variety of non-formal adult education opportunities. With population ageing and emigration combining to decease the size of Latvia’s traditional student population, it is in the long-term interest of these institutions to expand their course offering to adult learners.
In Latvia, most formal adult education occurs in institutions at the level of tertiary education, followed by upper secondary, post-secondary non-tertiary education, and primary/lower secondary education. Compared to the EU average, a greater share of formal adult education in Latvia takes place at the tertiary education level, while across the EU, a larger share of adult learners participates at the upper secondary education level, including both general and vocational orientation (see Figure 3.15, Panel A). In Latvia, formal adult education tends to have more of a general than a vocational orientation: around 92.9% of adults participating in formal education are taking a general orientation programme, and around 7.1% a vocational orientation programme. This stands in contrast with the EU average, where more adult learners are participating in vocational oriented formal adult education (69.5%) than in general oriented formal adult education (30.5%) (see Figure 3.15, Panel B).
Adult learners in tertiary education participate mostly in business, administration and law, and health and welfare. The share for these two types of programme are higher in Latvia than in the EU on average. Engineering, manufacturing and construction constitute the third most attended programme in Latvia, with a share slightly lower than the EU average. The fourth most attended programme in Latvia is education, for which the share is a little higher in Latvia than the EU average. For the remaining programmes, the share in Latvia is either similar or lower than across the EU. Despite being identified as an economic priority (see discussion in Chapter 4), participation is low in natural sciences, mathematics and statistics (Figure 3.16), which could be an obstacle for Latvia’s economic development.
Figure 3.15. Formal adult education across levels of education and by orientation, 2016
Note: Panel A: Share of adults in formal adult education across different formal degree programmes. Name of variable FEDLEVEL.
Primary/secondary (ISCED 1-2). Upper secondary (ISCED 3 programme duration of 2 years and more, sequential access to next ISCED 3 programmes only; ISCED 3 programme duration of 2 years and more, terminal or access to ISCED 4 programmes only; ISCED 3 with access to ISCED 5, 6 or 7; programme of duration of 2 years and more, without possible distinction of access to other ISCED levels). Post-secondary non-tertiary (ISCED 4). Tertiary (ISCED 5, 6, 7, 8). Panel B: Share of adults in formal adult education across upper secondary education (level 300) and post-secondary non-tertiary education (level 400) by orientation. Name of variable FEDVOC.
Source: Eurostat (2019[19]), Adult Education Survey 2016 (database), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
Figure 3.16. Formal adult education in tertiary education by field of study, 2016
Share of adults participating in different field-of-study programmes in tertiary education
Source: Calculations based on Eurostat (2019[19]), Adult Education Survey 2016 (database), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
Expanding the provision of adult learning opportunities in VET, especially in Vocational Education Competence Centres
Latvian adults can participate in private and public VET (Box 3.7). Private VET providers are active in the provision of adult learning to those who are unemployed and employed. Public VET institutions include vocational schools (arodskolas), vocational secondary schools (profesionālā vidusskola, tehnikums) and colleges (koledža). Some VET schools provide basic VET education programmes, mainly for students with special needs. Vocational secondary education can be accessed after completing basic education (pamatizglītība, ISCED 1 and 2 levels). Those who have no basic education certificate and are older than 15 can enter vocational schools (arodskola) and acquire a qualification of both vocational and basic general education at the end of schooling. Students who have passed final subject and qualification examinations in their education programme receive a state recognised vocational education document, such as the certificate of vocational basic education (apliecība par profesionālo pamatizglītību), the certificate of vocational education (apliecība pararodizglītību), the diploma of vocational secondary education (diploms par profesionālo vidējo izglītību) and the certificate of professional qualification (profesionālās kvalifikācijas apliecība) (Latvian Qualification Database, 2019[46]).
VET programmes offered for those who are unemployed are administered via training vouchers, meaning that they can choose which training programme to join. This enables unemployed adults to acquire professional qualifications at the second, third and fourth level of the European Qualifications Framework. In order to improve VET for adults, VET institutes should collaborate with employers to ensure that the skills needed for the development of the sector are taken into account in education. There is also a need to improve the capacity of VET institutes to assess and analyse the current market situation, preparing an adult education service delivery plan, communicating with sectors on labour market needs, and successfully marketing educational services, and promoting VET institutes’ understanding of technological development trends and skills needed for the labour market after 3-5 years.
Vocational Education Competence Centres (VECCs) play an important role in the VET system as they are a hub for VET and are accessible across Latvia (see Chapter 2). VECCs have received several financial investments to upgrade their infrastructure and equipment. While the provision of adult education is a mandatory requirement to receive VECC status, not all VECC programmes are actively catering towards adult learners. Although VECCs are able to keep any additionally gained income (up to EUR 100 000 per year) from additional VET students, they lack the management capacity to deal with this new influx of students and the related budgetary changes in terms of income and expenses. Some 16 out of 18 VECCs under the Ministry of Education and Science are already providing adult learning opportunities in the programme SO 8.4.1, but other VECCs are still unwilling. Sometimes this reluctance is related to changes in operations when services are provided in new time slots, such as during the summer months, as this would entail, for example, holiday pay and additional contracted time. Some VECCs (tehnikums) have established adult learning centres or departments (Ogre tehnikums, Daugavpils Būvniecības tehnikums etc.) to provide a range of permanent and sustainable adult learning programmes.
Another challenge for VECCs is transitioning from an approach of receiving students automatically through the education system to an approach that involves actively recruiting adult students and competing with private VET providers. The capacity of VECCs to engage in marketing communication and promotion activities to encourage adults to participate needs to be strengthened. While some pilot initiatives support VECC staff to cater to adults, more training could be delivered to help them understand how to meet the specific needs of adult students and adopt a tailored pedagogical approach. This is important, as working with adults requires different teaching methods to working with young people. There are also challenges in attracting the best teaching candidates while at the same time offering comparatively lower salaries than the tertiary education sector. VECCs have an ageing teaching workforce. Existing VET courses are being reviewed to ensure that they can also be provided in modules, which are shorter segments that can be taken over time and that add up to fulfil the same requirements as regular VET courses. These modules, besides being available to young pupils, should also be made available to adult learners so that they can take courses that fit their work and family schedule. Latvia could also explore how flexibility could be increased by the use of technology and offering modules partly in an online or distance format.
Box 3.7. Relevant examples: Expanding the provision of adult learning in VET
Practical guidelines for the implementation of adult learning in VET schools in Latvia
The methodological material “Practical guidelines for implementation of adult learning in VET schools” was developed of the State Education Content Centre (VISC) within the framework of the European Social Fund project, “Effective management of vocational education institutions and improvement of personnel competence”. The methodological material was developed by SIA AC Konsultācijas, in partnership with businesses and business experts, representatives of ministries (education and science, economics, welfare, and finance), and in co-operation with four vocational education competencies centres (PIKC): Rīga Valsts tehnikums, Riga Mākslas un mediju tehnikums, Liepājas Valsts tehnikums, and Ogres Tehnikums. The guidelines describe the structural plan for the adult education project, and include planning the work of adult education teachers, establishing an organisational structure and responsibility sharing, flexible pricing principles and a financial plan, and how to evaluate results. When preparing teachers for providing adult education, it is essential to assess their ability to work with adults. At present, there are no criteria developed in Latvia for the skills of an educator working with adults, as is the case in other EU countries. There is also no public order for the professional training, further professional development and recognition of qualifications of adult educators, although the Adult Education Association of Latvia has compiled the recommended pedagogical skills and competences for adult educators.
Lifelong learning competence programmes for adult education in Latvia
In order to offer opportunities to improve lifelong learning competences within the framework of the Erasmus+ programme project, “National Co-ordinators for the implementation of the European Agenda for Adult Education”, VET expert working groups have developed lifelong learning competence programmes for adult education. The programmes are designed according to the modular principle. Each module consists of the following sections: 1) a description of the module, including its purpose, tasks, module entry conditions, assessment of module acquisition and relevance and applicability; 2) the content of the module, which summarises the topics to be studied, the recommended content and the results to be achieved - which the learner must be able to know and understand when learning a specific topic. Descriptions of the medium and optimal level of module acquisition are also provided, as well as those providing different ideas for the module; 3) a description of the tests, including introductory assessment (clarification of the needs of the learner, evaluation of preliminary knowledge for the introduction of training to suit the needs of the learner), current evaluation (if provided) and the content of the final examination work and evaluation criteria. The content of the modules is tailored to the needs of the industry, key competences for lifelong learning and adult learning needs. Some modules are integrated and combine several competences. There were 18 expert groups organised and 26 modules designed based on 8 competences for lifelong learning and sectoral needs.
Source: EPALE (2018[47]), Mūžizglītības kompetenču apguves programmas pieaugušo izglītībai (Educational competence acquisition programs for adult education), https://ec.europa.eu/epale/en/node/72751.
Adult learning through VET in Germany
Continuing VET takes lifelong learning into account and is the classical field for courses to deepen and supplement vocational knowledge, competencies and skills. Continuing training plays an increasingly important role in improving employability for those pursuing lifelong learning. Vocational education in Germany is offered in full-time schools or within the framework of the dual system (Duales System), which is the core of VET in Germany. The system is described as dual because training is conducted in two places of learning: companies and vocational schools. The dual system is based on a close co-operation between employers, trade unions and the government. Teachers are employed in the various vocational schools, while trainers are skilled workers in enterprises who provide trainees with the knowledge and practical skills required for the occupation. In addition to teachers and trainers, the staff at VET workshops for disabled people include psychologists, doctors and social workers. There are different types of learning facilitators, such as training counsellors from the chambers who advise trainees and employers on issues related to training, and vocational guidance counsellors employed by the federal employment agency. In some states, senior vocational schools (Berufsoberschulen, BOSs) have been established to allow those completing vocational training in the dual system to obtain a tertiary education entrance qualification. In Germany, many senior jobs are held by those with vocational qualifications, which gives incentive to people to pursue VET. The state promotes participation in initial vocational education and training (IVET) and continuing vocational education and training (CVET) with various support and funding instruments (grants, subsidies and loans to cover CVET and living costs).
Source: U. Hippach-Scheider and A. Huismann (2017[48]), Germany VET in Europe- 2016 Country Report, https://www.bibb.de/dokumente/pdf/bibb_refernet_2017_onlineversion_1_barrierefrei.pdf.
Recommendation for expanding the provision of adult learning in VET
Strengthen the management and pedagogical capacity of VECCs to deal with more adult students, including the related budgetary and scheduling changes, the tailoring of course offerings to the specific needs of adults, and recruiting adult students through marketing and promotion activities.
Expanding the provision of adult learning in tertiary education
Tertiary education institutions can play an important role in supporting adults to further develop their skills, which raises their labour market outcomes and overall productivity levels (Desjardins and Lee, 2016[49]). Public and private tertiary education institutions in Latvia are involved in providing adult learning opportunities.
In Latvia, there are 34 public and 26 private tertiary education institutions. In most tertiary education institutions, such as the University of Latvia and the Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies, adults can join part-time programmes and study in the evenings and through distance learning or blended learning. However, one of the challenges is that financial support is not available for those studying part-time. Students who cannot afford the cost of studying part-time or the loss in income when studying full-time may not be able to pursue studies in tertiary education (European Commission, 2018[4]). The lack of funding for part-time students is related to the larger issue of funding availability across tertiary education institutions in Latvia.
Adults may also audit regular courses. If they complete the course, they can receive a certificate of successful completion. The only requirement is for adults to have completed upper secondary education. There is a service fee for taking this type of course.
Some Latvian tertiary education institutions have established lifelong learning centres. These include the Liepāja University, the Ventspils University College, the Vidzeme University College, and the Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies. These lifelong learning centres provide continuing education activities, distance learning, module-based programmes, and conferences and seminars. They also strengthen local and international partnerships to promote lifelong learning and offer continuing professional development and training for adult teachers and trainers. Courses include, for example, foreign language courses, Latvian language courses for ethnic minorities, computer classes, and specialised courses for jobseekers and those who are unemployed.
In order to raise adult participation in tertiary education, stakeholders suggested measures to improve tertiary education provision for adult learners. While modular programmes have already been developed and are being offered by some tertiary education institutions, modules focus mostly on academic content and should thus be adapted to the needs of the labour market. Online courses, open educational resources and other e-learning possibilities could also be developed and provided for adults by tertiary education institutions. For example, at the University of Latvia, lectures on different popular topics are available for students free of charge, for a low fee, or for the full fee with the possibility of receiving a certificate. Tertiary education institutions should be co-operating more with employers to identify the skills needed in the labour market in general and in specific sectors. Although tertiary education institutions have branches in the different Latvian regions, they could improve their regional relevance by collecting information about specific regional demands and having a regional development strategy. Academic staff should be trained to work with adult learners so that they can learn about their specific needs and learning styles. Relations with graduates should be strengthened to incentivise them to come back for further studies. There are some successful examples of co-operating with graduates in fields such as medicine, architecture, and engineering, where graduates regularly return for further education and training after completing their initial education. This could be expanded to other fields. Latvia could also learn from countries like Denmark, which provide extensive adult learning opportunities in its tertiary education system (Box 3.8).
Box 3.8. Relevant example: Expanding the provision of adult learning in tertiary education
Adult learning in tertiary education in Denmark
In 1996, Denmark introduced an education system for adults that is parallel to the regular system: the adult and continuing education (ACE) system. This gives adults the chance to obtain secondary and/or tertiary education degrees. Secondary education includes basic and general adult education (Grundlæggende Voksenuddannelser, GVU, and Almen Voksenuddannelse, AVU) as well a higher preparatory degree (Højere forberedelses eksamen, HF) and labour market training (Arbejdsmarkedsuddannelser, AMU). Tertiary education gives adults the possibility to obtain a master’s degree or to follow modules at university. There are also short-cycle tertiary education programmes (e.g. Videregående voksenuddannelser, VVU and Diplom uddannelser, diploma programmes) that make tertiary education more accessible for adults. The diploma programmes (corresponding to a bachelor’s degree), for example, are built in modules that may be taken together or separately according to the interests of adult learners. The education emphasises the competences the participant has from any previous work experience and the qualifications needed in the profession. Through skills validation, participants can also be admitted to diploma programmes without any formal degree requirements.
Since its introduction, the ACE system has undergone numerous reforms to make it even more flexible, demand-led and adaptable to the needs of the labour market. In 2003 it shifted to a competence-based system with over 130 competence descriptions defined by the Danish Ministry of Children and Education, and social partners. Recently, a tripartite agreement involving the government, unions and employer organisations reformed the AMU programme in order to provide adults with or without existing vocational training with vocational adult and continuing education opportunities. The agreement emphasises a more flexible and digital training system, easier access to AMU programmes, and financial incentives for both learners and employers.
The Danish government has also established the Kompetenceudviklingsfonde (competency development fund) to promote continuing education. This fund was an element of the overall renewal of collective agreements, and supplements other provisions of the collective agreements on competence development and continuing education. A common feature of the competency development fund is that companies pay contributions to the fund and employees are free to choose their education with support of the funds.
Source: OECD (2019[42]), OECD Skills Strategy Flanders: Assessment and Recommendations, OECD Skills Studies, https://doi.org/10.1787/23078731; Danish Industry (2019[50]), What is a competency development fund; https://www.danskindustri.dk/vi-radgiver-dig-ny/personale/hr-ledelse-og-uddannelse/efteruddannelse/kompetenceudviklingsfonde/hvad-er-en-kompetenceudviklingsfond/.
Recommendation for expanding the provision of adult learning in tertiary education
Promote a strategic role of tertiary education institutions to engage adult learners. This means enlarging the course offerings in tertiary education, providing courses in a flexible and modular format in labour market demanded subject areas, providing tertiary education staff with training to deal with adult students, and offering financial support to part-time adult students who are on a low income.
Opportunity 4: Raising the quality of adult learning opportunities
Simply raising awareness, removing barriers and expanding the provision of adult learning opportunities do not guarantee strong adult learning outcomes: it is also critical to have high-quality adult learning programmes. Evidence suggests that countries with high-quality systems for formal and non-formal adult education tend to have higher participation rates in adult learning (Broek and Buiskool, 2013[51]). For the purpose of this report, the quality of adult learning will be defined in terms of the perceived and measured impact for the individual adult learner, as well as the alignment of adult learning opportunities to specific skill needs.
In Latvia, 67.6% of participants in formal adult education report that after participation they have experienced positive employment outcomes, defined as: 1) getting a (new) job; 2) higher salary/wages; 3) job promotion; 4) new tasks; and 5) better performance in present job. This is significantly higher than the EU average of 53.1%. Around 20.9% of Latvian participants report that the only positive outcomes were personal, such as meeting other people and refreshing skills on general subjects. This is slightly lower than the EU average of 26.2%. Around 11.5% of Latvians report no positive outcome, compared to 20.7% of EU participants. In non-formal education, the situation is similar. The share of Latvian adult learners reporting positive employment outcomes is slightly higher than the EU average (72.5% vs. 66.3%), while the share of Latvians reporting personal outcomes (17.2% vs. 22.9%) and no outcome (9.8% vs. 10.8%) is slightly below the EU average. These self-reported outcome measures in Latvia suggest that a significant share of formal and non-formal adult education has positive outcomes (Figure 3.17). While these results are encouraging, they need to be interpreted with caution, as the self-reported outcomes on employment relevance do not only reflect training quality, but also the overall labour market competition. When there is a lot of competition, training may have a larger impact on employment outcomes. When there is high unemployment, training may have a lower impact on employment outcomes. There are also cultural factors that could influence reported perceptions.
Figure 3.17. Outcomes of formal and non-formal adult education, 2016
Note: Participants who reported employment relevant outcomes may also have reported personally relevant outcomes.
Source: Calculations based on Eurostat (2019[19]), Adult Education Survey 2016 (database), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database.
Previous research on the effectiveness of formal and non-formal training in Latvia focuses mostly on training provided as part of active labour market policies (ALMP) for those who are unemployed. Findings suggest that training has positive effects on employment and earnings (Hazans and Dmitrijeva, 2013[52]; OECD, 2019[53]). The size of the formal training effect on employment was larger than that of non-formal training: individuals who participated in formal training were almost 7.6 percentage points more likely to be in employment after 12 months, compared to 5 percentage points more likely for those in non-formal training. In both cases, the comparison group were those still waiting for ALMP measures or another way out of unemployment. After 18 months, participants in formal training observed an increase in monthly earnings of 2.2%, compared to 5.8% for non-formal participants. When analysing these effects by various sub-groups in Latvia (gender, age, rural vs. urban, high vs. low educated, recipients of social assistance), the positive effects of formal and non-formal training remain (OECD, 2019[53]).
From the employers’ perspective there seem to be some challenges in terms of aligning training to labour market needs in Latvia. When comparing the top three critical skill needs of enterprises with those addressed through training, only 10% of enterprises in Latvia report full alignment, which is below the 13% average and significantly behind other countries like Estonia and Ireland, where it is above 30% (Figure 3.18).
These findings from the various data sources suggest a mixed picture about the quality of adult learning and point to some information gaps. Adult learners report overall positive perceived employment relevant outcomes. This conclusion is drawn from evidence on formal and non-formal programmes targeting those who are unemployed. More research is needed to identify whether similar positive measurable effects would be observed from formal and non-formal programmes that target those who are employed. However, it is clear that employers themselves do not seem to be very convinced that training for their employees is well aligned to their specific needs.
Figure 3.18. Employers’ views on aligning training to skill needs
Overlap between skills priorities and training activities
Note: Only refers to enterprises with at least ten employees. Countries are ranked by their average degree of alignment. The degree of alignment is calculated as the overlap between the top three development priorities of firms and the top three training priorities (in terms of training hours). Each firm can score either zero (i.e. no overlap), low (i.e. one development priority is also a training priority), fair (i.e. two development priorities are also training priorities) or full alignment (i.e. complete overlap between development and training priorities).
Source: OECD (2019[6]) Getting Skills Right: Future Ready Adult Learning Systems, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264311756-en.
In Latvia, responsibility for quality control depends on the type of adult learning. For formal adult education, such as programmes provided by tertiary education and VET institutions, there are clear standards in place managed by the State Educational Quality Service. These standards are used for the licencing and accreditation of adult learning providers (Maslo, 2017[31]). For non-formal education, the existence of quality standards depends on the programme. The State Employment Agency (SEA) monitors the quality of each training provider that offers programmes to unemployed adults. Participants complete an evaluation about their experience and employment status six months after training has taken place. This information is then made available online. The SEA provides unemployed adults with vouchers, which they can then use to choose a training provider of their choice based on the monitoring information (OECD, 2019[53]). The quality of non-formal education programmes that do not specifically focus on unemployed adults are not centrally monitored. Public and private educational institutions have to apply for a license from the municipality inorder to provide non-formal adult education programmes.
Municipalities vary in terms of how the licensing procedure is conducted, including fees, requirements and criteria. Some smaller municipalities, such as Livanu, Rundales or Talsu, do not have regulations for adult education programme licencing, but most do. The regulations typically follow a standard form, as recommended by the Ministry of Environment Protection and Regional Development (VARAM). To obtain a license, an application is submitted with a list of documents, such as the programme curriculum, a description of financial resources, documents about the premises where the programmes will be implemented and its conformity to sanitary requirements, details of adult education staff with CVs and education documents, and a certificate from the criminal record register. Obtaining a license takes up to 30 days and is issued for a period of three years. The license is issued by an appointed Licensing Commission of 3-5 experts, or an alternative collective committee, such as the Education Committee. In many municipalities, obtaining a license is free of charge, but some, including Riga, Daugavpils, Pieriga, charge between EUR 14 and EUR 70. Licenses can be revoked in cases where there are found to be (and there are some variations between municipalities): unqualified pedagogical staff and insufficient financial resources, violations of regulations, evidence that the adult education programme is of low quality, and false information provided in the application. Historically, the licensing of non-formal adult education programmes was at the state level through the State Education Agency, but it was decentralised in an effort to expand provision. The downside has been a proliferation of providers with varying qualities across Latvia. There are also cases of providers operating without a license.
Latvia is currently in the process of considering how to implement quality standards in non-formal adult education. In 2017, as part of the Erasmus+ programme “National Co-ordinators for the Implementation of the European Agenda for Adult Learning”, guidelines on the implementation of quality assurance in adult learning were developed. These guidelines provide specific suggestions of quality indicators that Latvia could consider to assess programme providers. They include: 1) issuance of license; 2) curriculum that addresses needs in the labour market and society at large; 3) clearly defined outcomes in accordance with the Latvian qualification framework; 4) availability of sufficient resources for operation; 5) staff whose experience, education and qualification level corresponds to the adult education programme; 6) leadership of programme provider; 7) internal quality assessment; 8) co-operation with industry regarding programme implementation; 9) granting of a certificate to participants; 10) high evaluation marks by participants after completion; 11) work-based learning; 12) staff coming from industry; and 13) staff working with industry (European Commission, 2017[54]). These guidelines are being further discussed in seminars for non-formal education providers in all four regions in Latvia during 2019. In 2018, in the forum “Adult Learning Today and Tomorrow” there were participants from 78 of the 119 municipalities. A map of adult learning providers has been developed and published online (http://www.muzizglitiba.lv/#map); it is regularly updated in co-operation with municipalities. Since 2017, the Ministry of Education and Science has conducted an annual competition for non-formal adult education with the support of Erasmus+ programme funding and in the context of the EPALE project. The contest aims to raise awareness about the importance of adult education quality. There are about 40 participants in the annual ceremony.
Once Latvia has established quality standards for adult learning, especially for non-formal adult education, it could consider complementary measures to improve the quality of adult learning. A strong accreditation process would be needed to ensure that providers abide by quality standards. In order to ensure quality across municipalities, it may be advantageous to have the accreditation process at the state level. Accreditation could also be tied to access to public funding, which may further incentivise providers to meet quality standards. Quality labels, granted by a public or private entity, could be introduced to certify the quality of a provider. This allows providers to stand out and signal their quality to potential adult learners, which helps attract them to their programmes. Similarly, quality guidelines could be introduced that explain the quality standards and how to adhere to them. Furthermore, adult providers could be required to conduct self-evaluations, which could include, for example, tracking participant and employer satisfaction with adult education courses. Inspections by an external quality assurance body could also ensure that quality standards are being met. The findings from inspections could be linked to funding, thus giving providers further incentives to provide high-quality adult education programmes. Finally, the most rigorous mechanism for verifying quality is the use of impact evaluations, which could be done by private or public actors. The advantages and disadvantages of each of these measures, as well as relevant country examples, are described in Table 3.9. Relevant examples of quality assurance in Latvia and other countries are featured in Box 3.9.
Table 3.9. Measures to improve quality in adult learning
Source: OECD (2019[6]), Getting Skills Right, Future-Ready Adult Learning Systems, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264311756-en; Broek S. and B. Buiskool (2013[51]), Developing the adult learning: Sector quality in the adult learning sector, https://eurogender.eige.europa.eu/system/files/Quality%20of%20Adult%20Learning%20final.pdf.
Box 3.9. Relevant Examples: Raising the quality of adult learning
Quality assurance in higher education in Latvia
In July 2015, the Academic Information Centre (AIC) became the institution responsible for quality assurance in higher education. This includes accreditation and licensing in accordance with EU standards and regulations. Within AIC, a separate department, known as the Quality Agency for Higher Education (Augstākās izglītības kvalitātes aģentūra, AIKA), focusses solely on quality assurance and is currently aiming to align with the European Quality Assurance Register for Higher Education (EQAR) (ENQA, 2019[55]). Aligning with EQAR in this way would be a vital step for promoting the quality, visibility, and international recognition of Latvia’s tertiary education system (OECD, 2019[53]).
Quality assurance in Vocational Education Competence Centres (VECCs) in Latvia
Since 2009, larger vocational schools – those with more than 500 students outside of Riga and more than 800 students in Riga – have gradually been transformed into VECCs. These centres act as regional hubs to develop closer links between vocational education and employers, to improve quality, and to provide pedagogical support for other vocational schools. To ensure that VECCs boost the quality of VET they must meet several specific criteria: achieve certain standards in terms of student results, work with the latest technologies, provide career guidance, and create and publish educational and methodological materials for learners and educators online. VECCs are also tasked with providing part-time learning, which is vital for adults wishing to participate in education and training activities while remaining in employment. At the same time, VET schools with fewer than 300 students have been merged with VECCs or, more rarely, combined with general education schools. As a result of these reforms, the number of vocational education schools for which the MoES is responsible dropped from 59 to 21 between 2010 and 2018 (OECD, 2019[53]) (MoES, 2019[56]).
Quality assurance in the State Employment Agency (SEA) in Latvia
The SEA collects and distributes relatively detailed monitoring information for each training provider. After completing a training programme, participants fill in a special evaluation sheet that allows them to describe their experience and report their employment status six months after the training finishes. This information is then made available online and at local SEA branch offices. New voucher recipients are directed towards these information sources. Short-term labour market forecasts are also made available to prospective training participants to help inform their choices. The vouchers consist of a physical document that is collected from the branch offices of the SEA. The voucher itself contains information about the conditions under which it can be redeemed and cancelled, and directly informs the recipient of their responsibilities. Before the introduction of the voucher system in 2011, Latvia experienced several examples of training providers procuring lengthy contracts that were difficult to revise or terminate in response to performance. Consequently, the quality of training from some providers deteriorated throughout the duration of the contract. By placing responsibility for selecting training providers in the hands of voucher recipients, the voucher system sought to make the mechanism for allocating training more transparent.
Source: ENQA (2019[55]), European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education, https://enqa.eu/; OECD (2019[53]), Evaluating Latvia's Active Labour Market Policies, Connecting People with Jobs, https://doi.org/10.1787/6037200a-en; MoES (2019[56]), Number of VET schools: up-to-date information.
Quality assurance framework in Ireland
The Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC) is the awarding body for non‐tertiary further education and training certified at Levels 1 to 6 on the National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ). FETAC has an integrated quality assurance system that covers all levels of adult learning at micro, meso and macro levels. Its main functions are to run award schemes, determine and monitor standards for awards, and recognise awards related to the NFQ; to agree and review providers’ quality assurance arrangements in delivering programmes that lead to these awards; to validate programmes of education and training leading to these awards; and to ensure fair and consistent assessment of learners by providers. FETAC must agree their quality assurance procedures with the National Qualifications Authority Ireland (NQAI), and is subject to quality assurance arrangements, which include regular evaluation by national and international experts and evaluation by learners of their VET programmes and ancillary services. In March 2006, FETAC adopted and published its policies in a document called “Quality Assuring, Assessment, Validation and Monitoring of Programmes”, aimed at providers who wish to become recognised by the Council.
Source: Eurydice (2018[57]), National Qualifications Framework, https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/content/national-qualifications-framework-37_de.
Quality adult education label (EduQua) in Switzerland
EduQua defines six criteria that are key to the quality of an adult education institution: 1) the course offer; 2) communication with clients; 3) value performance; 4) staff/educators; 5) learning success; and 6) quality assurance and development. EduQua stimulates quality development through issuing certification, on‐site audit, certification report, and yearly intermediate audits, as well as through the renewal of the certification every three years. EduQua is the first Swiss quality label for adult education. It provides certified institutions with a considerable advantage in the eyes of their clients. The quality management also supports an improvement through the certification process. The certification can be advantageous when dealing with the authorities, with an increasing number of cantons requiring the certification for public funding. The Swiss Conference of the Cantonal Educating Directors recommends that the cantons check “the quality of the providers in the education sector in all of Switzerland based on the same criteria and make national subsidies dependent on a proof of quality (EduQua)”. EduQua is made up of over 1 000 schools, institutions and academies in the non‐formal sector of the adult learning system.
Source: Broek, S. and B. Buiskool (2013[51]), Developing the Adult Learning Sector, https://eurogender.eige.europa.eu/system/files/Quality%20of%20Adult%20Learning%20final.pdf.
Recommendation for raising the quality of adult learning
Work with relevant stakeholders to define quality standards, particularly in non-formal adult education, including how they will be measured, how they will be used in evaluation and monitoring, and how adult learning staff will be supported in implementation. Consider transferring responsibility for the licensing of adult learning providers from municipalities to the state to ensure the same quality standards nationwide.
Recommendations for fostering a culture of lifelong learning
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