SIGI 2019 Global Report

Transforming Challenges into Opportunities

Report

Social Institutions and Gender Index

8 March 2019

Annex D. SIGI regional overviews

The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.

This chapter presents trends in the SIGI results in four regions: Africa, The Americas, Asia and Europe. Each section presents an overview of recent progress and persisting discrimination in social institutions against women and girls for each region and sub-region.

Africa lags behind the other three regions in the achievement of women’s rights and gender equality but is the one making the most progress since the last edition of the SIGI in 2014. Important legal reforms, enhanced by efforts in implementation, have seen positive changes in social attitudes and decreased prevalence of harmful practices towards women. Europe, on the other hand, while the best performer of the 2019 SIGI is showing slow progress in improving women’s access to resources and opportunities. While certain legal loopholes still exist, resulting in weak protection of women in areas, such as gender-based violence and workplace rights, some harmful attitudes and practices are prevalent worldwide.

Africa

With a SIGI score of 40%, Africa is the poorest performer globally in the 2019 edition of the SIGI. Out of the 31 African countries ranked in the SIGI, 17 show high to very high levels of gender-based discrimination in social institutions and no country in the region is classified as having very low discrimination (Figure A D.2). However, the African continent presents wide sub-regional disparities (Figure A D.3): Northern Africa1 has the highest level of discrimination among the five African sub-regions (SIGI = 49%), followed by Middle Africa2 and Western Africa3 (SIGI = 44%), Eastern Africa4 (SIGI = 36%) while Southern Africa5 has the lowest level of discrimination (SIGI = 29%).

Discrimination in the family is the first area of concern in Africa among the four dimensions of the SIGI (Figure A D.4). For example, legal loopholes and weak implementation of laws result in high prevalence of girl child marriage: despite 44 countries’ having set the legal age of marriage for girls at 18, 23% of girls aged 15-19 years are or have been married or are in informal unions in the region.

The second dimension that needs special attention is women’s access to productive and financial resources, notably access to land: 17 countries do not grant women the same rights to inherit land assets as men; 7 countries deny married women the same rights as men to own land; women represent only 13% of all agricultural landholders in Africa.

Figure A D.2. Number and share of African countries by level of discrimination in the SIGI 2019

Main progress

Discrimination in the family

Since 2010, 5 countries6 have introduced new legal provisions mandating daughters’ and sons’ equal rights to inherit land and non-land assets, raising the total number of countries providing equal inheritance rights to 41 out of 54 countries.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2010, ten countries7 have newly enacted laws against domestic violence. Legal reforms and national plans have been accompanied by a decrease in the prevalence and social acceptance of domestic violence: the share of women who had experienced intimate-partner violence was 42% in 2012 compared to 33% in 2018, and the percentage of women considering that domestic violence was justifiable decreased from 56% in 2012 to 46% in 2018.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Since 2010, 7 countries8 have enacted laws guaranteeing equal remuneration for work of equal value, joining the 43 countries that already have such legal provisions.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2011, 13 countries9 have mandated legal quotas to encourage women’s political participation at the local or national level. These measures, when accompanied by enforcement mechanisms, have resulted in an increase in the percentage of female members of parliament from 18% in 2012 to 23% in 2018.

Main legal loopholes

Discrimination in the family

In 49 countries, the law allows girl child marriage: 23% of girls aged 15-19 years are or have been married or are in informal unions.
In 26 countries, women are not legally recognised as heads of household.

Restricted physical integrity

In 21 countries, there is no criminal law prohibiting female genital mutilation (FGM) as a harmful practice, while in Africa 42% of women have been cut and 24% think this practice should continue.
In 42 countries, the law allows for abortions only in limited circumstances, while during 2010-14, three in four abortions in Africa were performed under unsafe circumstances (Guttmacher Institute, 2018[1]).

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

In 36 countries, there are no public measures in place to protect women’s land rights and women only represent 13% of agricultural landholders in Africa.
While 53 countries offer paid maternity leave, only 25 have legal regulations on paid paternity leave.

Restricted civil liberties

23 countries deny women equal rights as men to confer nationality on their spouse.
In 15 countries, the law does not provide married women with the same rights as married men to apply for passports.

Figure A D.3. Africa’s sub-regional scores in the SIGI 2019

Eastern Africa

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Data on certain subindices is available for Burundi, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Mauritius, Seychelles, Somalia and South Sudan.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

Since 2015, 15 of the 18 countries from the sub-region included in SIGI have provided women and men with the same rights to legal guardianship of their children during marriage and after divorce.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2010, seven countries10 have newly enacted laws protecting women against violence. The prevalence of domestic violence has significantly decreased from 53% in 2012 to 36% in 2018; and the percentage of women considering that it is justifiable has decreased from 59% in 2012 to 52% in 2018.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Since 2012, all countries recognise that women have the same rights as men to open a bank account and obtain credit at a formal financial institution.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2011, three countries11 have new constitutions that mandate legal quotas for women to promote their political participation at the national level, bringing the total number in the region with similar provisions to ten.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Girl child marriage is persistent: 24% of girls aged 15-19 years are or have been married or are in informal unions in 2018, compared to 26% in 2012.

Restricted physical integrity

Women’s physical integrity is highly restricted: in nine countries, women can only obtain an abortion if the pregnancy is life-threatening or results from rape or incest; 22% of women have an unmet need for family planning; 38% of women have undergone female genital mutilation and 13% are not ready to abandon the practice.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women’s access to land is still limited: only 20% of agricultural landholders are women.

Restricted civil liberties

Discriminatory social norms restrict women’s freedom of movement: they represent 63% of the people who declare not feeling safe walking alone at night.

Figure A D.4. Africa’s sub-regional scores in the four SIGI 2019 sub-indices

Middle Africa

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo and Gabon. Data on certain sub-indices is available for Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Republic of Congo and Sao Tome and Principe.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

Girl child marriage is prohibited in 8 countries; the percentage of girls aged 15-19 years who are or have been married or are in informal unions decreased from 56% to 26% between 2009 and 2018.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2012, three countries12 have enacted laws criminalising sexual harassment, raising the total number of countries having such legal provisions to six of the nine in the sub-region.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Since 2012, all countries in the sub-region have enacted laws guaranteeing women’s employment security during maternity leave.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2011, women have been entitled the same rights as men to confer nationality on their spouses in six countries.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

The burden of unpaid care and domestic work is still borne by women: they spend on average three and a half hours per day on such activities, which is three times longer than men do.

Restricted physical integrity

The prevalence and social acceptance of domestic violence is pervasive: in 56% of the countries in Middle Africa, domestic violence is not a criminal offence and 45% of women have been victims of it; 58% of women consider that domestic violence is justifiable in certain circumstances.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

The “glass ceiling” is still holding women back from progressing in the workplace: women hold only 20% of management positions.

Restricted civil liberties

Women’s representation in public life is still limited: three countries do not have legal quotas or incentives to promote women’s political participation and women represent only 18% of members of parliament.

Northern Africa

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Morroco and Tunisia. Data on certain subindices is available for Algeria, Egypt, Libya and Sudan.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

Since 2004, 4 countries13 have raised the minimum legal age of marriage to 18 for both women and men.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2015, two countries14 have introduced laws addressing violence against women; the prevalence of domestic violence, measured as the percentage of women in a relationship who reported having suffered from it, has decreased from 36% to 28% and the percentage of women who accept this practice has dropped from 51% to 34% between 2014 and 2018.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

In all countries, women have the same rights as men to open a bank account and obtain credit at a formal financial institution; two thirds of the countries implement gender-sensitive measures to expand women’s access to formal financial services.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2011, four countries15 have introduced new laws on legal quotas to promote women’s political participation at the local level.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Traditional gender roles are deeply entrenched: five of the six countries discriminate against widows and daughters’ land inheritance rights; 67% of the population claim that children will suffer when their mother has paid work outside home, while 86% of unpaid care and domestic activities are performed by women.

Restricted physical integrity

FGM remains a common and widely accepted practice: two-thirds of the countries do not have a criminal law addressing FGM, while almost 9 in 10 women have been cut and half say they do not want to abandon the practice (in the two countries where data are available).

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women’s access to land is limited: four countries do not have a public measure to protect women’s land rights and women represent only 5% of agricultural landholders.

Restricted civil liberties

Women’s freedom of movement is restricted by discriminatory social norms: 62% of the persons who declare that they feel unsafe walking alone at night are women.

Southern Africa

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Lesotho, Namibia and South Africa. Data on certain subindices is available for Botswana and Swaziland.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

Since 2015, four countries have introduced legal sanctions for those who facilitate the marriage of a child.

Restricted physical integrity

In all five countries, rape is a criminal offence and in four of them this includes marital rape.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

All countries have laws recognising women’s equal rights to open a bank account and obtain credit; in practice, women represent 51% of bank account holders.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2016, four countries have established a specialised body tasked with monitoring gender equality; Southern Africa is also one of the regions with the highest percentage of female members of parliaments globally (33%).

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Traditional gender roles are deeply entrenched in social norms. Half of the population says that children will suffer when their mother takes paid work outside home and 70% of unpaid care and domestic activities are performed by women.

Restricted physical integrity

The prevalence and social acceptance of domestic violence is pervasive: in 40% of Southern African countries, domestic violence is not a criminal offence; while 22% of women have experienced this form of violence and 58% consider that it can be tolerated.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women continue to be perceived as the main care providers: the law does not mandate paid paternity leave in 80% of the countries.

Restricted civil liberties

Women’s access to justice is still constrained: three of five countries in the sub-region have customary or religious practices that discriminate against women in terms of their providing testimony; and in 2 countries a woman’s testimony in religious tribunals does not carry the same evidentiary weight as a man’s.

Western Africa

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. Data on certain sub-indices is available for Cabo Verde, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania and Niger.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

Since 2011, two countries16 have enacted legal provisions mandating women’s equal right to initiate divorce, raising to 12 the total number of countries in the sub-region to have such legislation.

Restricted physical integrity

In nine countries, domestic violence is a criminal offence, while its acceptance the female population has decreased from 52% in 2012 to 42% in 2018.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Since 2010, five countries17 have new passed legislation guaranteeing equal remuneration for work of equal value, raising the sub-regional total to 15.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2010, four countries18 have enacted laws providing women with same rights as men to confer their nationality on their spouse, raising to ten the total number of countries having such provision.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Girl child marriage prevalence is the highest globally: 87% of Western African countries have legal exceptions that allow child marriage, while 29% of girls aged 15-19 years are or have been married or are in informal unions compared to 16% globally.

Restricted physical integrity

Women’s physical integrity is highly restricted: in three countries, abortion is completely illegal and in five others, women can only obtain an abortion if their life is in danger or if the pregnancy results from rape or incest; 27% of women have an unmet need for family planning; 29% of women have undergone female genital mutilation and 23% are not ready to abandon the practice.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women’s access to productive and financial resources is highly restricted: they represent only 14% of agricultural landholders and 37% of bank account owners.

Restricted civil liberties

Women’s political participation is restricted: 76% of the population agrees that men make better political leaders than women do and women represent only 15% of parliamentarians.

Box A D.1. The economic cost of gender inequality in Africa

Gender parity offers an immense opportunity for economic gain in Africa. The current level of discrimination social institutions in Africa induces a loss of USD 169 billion, or 7.5% of the regional GDP. Northern Africa faces the highest GDP loss due to non-fulfilment of gender equality (USD 54 billion), followed by Western Africa (USD 42 billion), Southern Africa (USD 29 billion), Eastern Africa (USD 26 billion) and Middle Africa (USD 18 billion). Gender parity also represents an opportunity to boost sustainable and inclusive development. A gradual reduction of the level of discrimination by 2030 could increase the annual GDP growth rate of Africa by 0.4 percentage points over the 11 years to 2030.

The Americas

Figure A D.5. Level of discrimination in American countries in the SIGI 2019

The Americas region is the second-best performer in the 2019 edition of the SIGI. The level of discrimination in laws, social norms and practices is 25% compared to 17% in Europe, meaning the continent has achieved three quarters of the path towards gender equality. Of the 20 countries in the region ranked in the SIGI, 17 show very low to low levels of gender-based discrimination in social institutions and no country is classified as having high or very high discrimination (Figure A D.6). Despite wide disparities, all four sub-regions have lower SIGI averages than the world average (Figure A D.7): Northern America19 has the lowest level of discrimination (SIGI = 18%), followed by Central America20 and South America21 (SIGI = 25%) and the Caribbean22 (SIGI = 27%).

Discrimination in the family is the major area of concern in Americas (Figure A D.8), particularly girl child marriage and household responsibility. Child marriage continues to affect more than one in ten girls in the region. One of the reasons for its persistence practice is poor legal protection: the law allows girl to be married under 18 years in 27 countries out of 31. Women’s voice and status within the household are still inferior to those of men. For instance, Colombia is the only country in the region with a law recognising that women and men enjoy the same right to be head of household. Unequal status within the family is also reflected in the unequal distribution of caring and reproductive responsibilities among household members. Women spend four and a half hours per day on unpaid care and domestic work, three times longer than men do, and 61% of the population believes that being a home maker is just as fulfilling as paid work outside the home.

The second dimension that needs attention is women’s access to productive and financial resources, notably rights in the workplace (Figure A D.8). In many cases, the law does not fully recognise women’s right to work: the United States is one of the only two countries23 in the SIGI that do not mandate paid maternity leave or paid parental leave for mothers; there is no paid leave available to fathers in 14 countries; 15 countries do not mandate non-discrimination on the grounds of sex during recruitment and promotion processes. Discriminatory social norms also maintain invisible barriers for women to progress in the workplace: 40% of the population believes that children would suffer if their mother had paid work outside home.

Finally, it is worth noting that reproductive autonomy rights are still restricted for women in the Americas. In 4 countries, abortion is totally prohibited; in 22 countries women can obtain an abortion only under limited conditions. The absence of this right has is strongly linked to the high prevalence of unsafe abortions in the region: 31 in 1 000 women aged 15–44 years have experienced unsafe abortions in Latin America and the Caribbean24, twice more than the world average (WHO, 2012[2]).

Figure A D.6. Number and share of American countries by level of discrimination in the SIGI 2019

Main progress in the Americas

Discrimination in the family

Since 2004, women have had the same rights as men to initiate a divorce in all countries.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2010, five countries25 have legislated against domestic violence, raising the total to 29 out of 31. The prevalence and social acceptance of intimate-partner violence against women have slightly decreased between 2014 and 2018 (from 35% to 29% and from 14% to 11%, respectively).

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Since 2001, 24 countries have mandated equal remuneration for work of equal value; women hold 39% of the management positions, making the Americas the pioneer in the leadership of women in the workplace. In the Bahamas, Colombia and Jamaica, women represent more than 50% of managers, which is the case in only one other country in the world (The Philippines).

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2015, 2 countries26 have introduced legal quotas to promote women’s political participation, raising the total number of countries in the region with such provision to 15; the region has the lowest share of the population who think that men make better political leaders than women (24% compared to 47% globally); the percentage of women members of parliament has increased from 22% in 2014 to 28% in 2018.

Main legal loopholes in the Americas

Discrimination in the family

The law allows girl child marriage in 27 countries; while the prevalence of girl child marriage has slightly increased from 10% in 2014 to 12% in 2018.

In four countries, women do not have the same rights as men to be the legal guardian of their children after divorce.

Restricted physical integrity

The definition of sexual harassment does not include public places in 15 countries or include cyber harassment in 20 countries.

Abortion is only allowed under limited circumstances in 22 countries; 31 in 1 000 women aged 15–44 years have experienced unsafe abortions in the region27, twice more than the world average (WHO, 2012[2]).

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

The law does not mandate paid paternity leave in 14 countries and there is no paid parental leave in 28 countries.

Nine countries have not implemented gender-sensitive measures to expand women’s access to formal financial services; women represent only 44% of credit-card holders in the Americas, compared to 48% in Europe, which is the global best performer in this respect.

Restricted civil liberties

Women represent 56% of people who claim not to have confidence in the judicial system and courts of their country.

In seven countries, married women are required to provide information about their husbands and their marriage when applying for passports, while the same requirement is not required of men.

Figure A D.7. Americas’ sub-regional scores in the SIGI 2019

The Caribbean

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. Data on certain sub-indices is available for Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, Grenada and the Bahamas.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

Since 2017, in eight countries the legal age of marriage has been set at over 18 for both women and men; the prevalence of girl child marriage has dropped from 20% in 2014 to 15% in 2018.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2012, the legal definition of rape has been extended to marital rape in three countries28, raising the total number of countries in the sub-region with such a legal provision to six out of ten.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

In five countries, governments promote gender-sensitive measures to expand women’s access to formal financial services; women represent 48% of credit-card owners; and hold 34% of the management positions, well above the 24 % world average.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2007, seven countries have had a special body tasked with monitoring gender equality.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Traditional gender roles are deeply entrenched: 59% of the population agrees that a woman’s earning more money than her husband is almost certainly a problem; women spend four and a half hours per day on unpaid care and domestic work, three times longer than men do.

Restricted physical integrity

Violence against women remains a pervasive issue: seven countries do not have policies or national action plans addressing domestic violence; the prevalence of recent episodes of intimate-partner violence against women has remained stable (affecting 14% of women in the previous year) and the social acceptance of domestic violence has increased from 15% to 20% between 2014 and 2018.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Both laws and social norms restrict women’s workplace rights: five countries do not mandate non-discrimination on the basis on sex during recruitment and promotion processes; 14% of the population believes that it is not acceptable for a woman to accept paid employment outside the home.

Restricted civil liberties

Women’s representation in public life is still limited: eight countries lack legal quotas or other legal measures to promote women’s political participation at the national level; 35% of the population thinks that men make better leaders that women do.

Figure A D.8. The Americas’ sub-regional scores in the four SIGI 2019 sub-indices

Central America

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico and Nicaragua. Data on certain sub-indices is available for Belize and Panama.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

In all countries, women have same rights as men to be the legal guardians of their children during marriage and in informal unions.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2012, three countries29 have enacted laws addressing violence against women, joining the other four already with such legislation; the social acceptance and prevalence of intimate-partner violence against women have decreased between 2014 and 2018 (from 15% to 6% and from 43% to 16% respectively).

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Since 2011, five countries have mandated non-discrimination on the basis of sex for to job-selection criteria.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2013, three countries have implemented national policies and programmes to facilitate women’s access to justice, including two that have put a special focus on indigenous women.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Girl child marriage is persistent: five countries have laws allowing girls to be married before their 18^th birthdays; the prevalence of girl child marriage has slightly increased from 18% in 2014 to 20% in 2018.

Restricted physical integrity

Women’s reproductive autonomy is restricted: abortion is totally prohibited in 3 countries; 29 in 1 000 women aged 15–44 years have experienced unsafe abortions in Central America, twice more than the world average (WHO, 2012[2]).

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women’s access to land is still denied: six countries do not have a law or policy to promote women’s legal literacy in land property rights; women represent only 15% of agricultural landholders and 27% of the house owners.

Restricted civil liberties

Women’s political voice and access to justice is still constrained: Discriminatory customary or religious practices persist in four countries that affect women’s legal right to hold public office and in two countries that limit women’s legal right to sue.

Northern America

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for both Canada and the United States.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

It is in Northern America that men spend the largest amount of time on unpaid care and domestic work (2.7 hours per day compared to 1.6 hours of world average). The ratio of women’s to men’s time spent on these activities is 1.5, half the world average and the least disproportionate globally.

Restricted physical integrity

Both Canada and the United States recognise rape as a crime and the United States has included provision in budgets for training law enforcement and prosecutors who might be required to deal with sexual assault cases.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

In both countries, the law provides women with the same rights as men to open a bank account and obtain credit; the sub-region has one of the highest shares of women as bank-account owners (50%) and credit-card holders (49%), globally.

Restricted civil liberties

In both Canada and the United States, there is a specialised body tasked with monitoring gender equality, including resolving complaints of gender discrimination, and with conducting public awareness of gender equality.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Girl child marriage remains legal: there is no legal age of marriage at the national level in the United States and the legal age of marriage is 18 or above in Canada, although a child may marry at 16 with parental or judicial consent.

Restricted physical integrity

A woman’s control over her body is restricted: the law does not include marital rape in the United States.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

The law creates gaps between women and men in terms of their rights and opportunities in the workplace: in the United States, the law does not mandate paid maternity leave, paternity or parental leave, while the gender wage gap is at 36% (ILO, 2015[3]).

Restricted civil liberties

Insecurity still threatens women’s freedom of movement: women represent three quarters of those who say they feel insecure while walking alone at night.

South America

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, Plurinational State of Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay. Data on certain sub-indices is available for Argentina, the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and Guyana.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

Since 2014, 3 countries30 have raised the minimum legal age of marriage to over 18 for both women and men, bringing the total number to 9 out of the 11 jurisdictions in the sub-region.

Restricted physical integrity

All the countries in the sub-region have laws addressing sexual harassment, including 331 that have introduced new laws on this form of violence since 2005.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Since 2007, two countries32 have introduced laws mandating equal remuneration for work of equal value, joining the other seven in the sub-region that already have such provisions.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2010, two countries33 introduced legal quotas to promote women’s political participation at the national level, raising the total number of countries with such provision to eight.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Traditional gender roles are deeply entrenched: 55% of the population agrees that the children of mothers in paid work outside the home suffer; women spend four and a half hours per day on unpaid care work, three times longer than men do.

Restricted physical integrity

Women are not sufficiently protected from sexual harassment: there is no criminal penalty against this form of violence in five countries.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

The law still acts as an invisible barrier for women to work: they do not have legal rights to perform the same jobs as men in six countries; the law does not mandate non-discrimination on the basis of sex during the promotion process in four countries.

Restricted civil liberties

Women still face restrictions on their access to justice: the procedural rules in courts and tribunals do not consider the particular interests of women in eight countries; women represent 61% of the population who say they lack confidence in the judicial system and courts.

Box A D.2. The economic cost of gender inequality in the Americas

Gender parity represents an immense economic opportunity for the Americas. The current level of discrimination in social institutions in the region induces a loss of USD 1 979 billion, or 7.5% of the regional GDP. Northern America suffers from the highest GDP loss from gender inequality (USD 1 578 billion), followed by South America (USD 279 billion), Central America (USD 106 billion) and the Caribbean (USD 16 billion). Gender parity thus represents an opportunity to boost sustainable and inclusive development of the continent. A gradual reduction of the level of discrimination by 2030 could increase the annual GDP growth rate of Americas by 0.4 percentage points over the 11 years to 2030.

Asia

Asia is the second-poorest performer in the 2019 edition of the SIGI. The level of discrimination in laws, social norms and practices is 36% compared to 40% in Africa, meaning the continent has only achieved two-thirds of the path towards gender equality. The countries in the region show heterogeneity in the level of gender-based discrimination in social institutions: 33 out of 55 countries are ranked across all five categories of the SIGI classification (Figure A D.10). 17 countries show a very low to low level of gender-based discrimination in social institutions, 4 countries exhibit a medium level and 12 countries are classified as having a high or very high level of discrimination. There is also a diversity in the level of discrimination among the six sub-regions of Asia: Southern Asia34 has the highest level of discrimination (SIGI = 48%), followed by Western Asia (SIGI = 41%)35; South-eastern Asia36 (SIGI = 35%); Central Asia37 (SIGI = 26%); Eastern Asia38 (SIGI = 22%) and the Pacific 39(SIGI = 16%) (Figure A D.11). Discrimination in the family is the primary area of concern in Asia (Figure A D.12). The hurdles to eliminating child marriage remain daunting - legislation in 49 countries allows the marriage of a girl aged under 18 years, and the prevalence of child marriage for girls in Asia is 15%. Given the high population, particularly in Eastern Asia and Southern Asia, child marriage affects 25 million girls aged 15-19 years. There is also a poor level of legal protection for women’s voice and authority within the household: the law requires married women to obey their husbands in 17 countries; women do not have the same rights to inherit land and non-land assets in 19 countries. Finally, gender-based discrimination is also entrenched in social norms and traditional gender roles: women spend four times longer on unpaid care and domestic work than their male partners; 55% of people in the region agree that paid work for a mother outside the home is bad for her children; 22% claim that it is not acceptable for a female family member to have a formal job outside the home.

Restricted civil liberties is the second major area that hinders the achievement of gender equality in Asia (Figure A D.12). Women’s citizenship rights are still restricted by the law: women are not entitled the same rights as men to transfer their nationality to their non-citizen spouses in 22 countries and to their children in 15 countries. There is an absence of legal quotas at national or local level in 36 countries to encourage women’s participation in decision-making; the female share in parliament has even decreased from 22% to 19% during 2014-2018. Discriminatory practices also prevent women from moving freely and safely: two-thirds of the people who feel unsafe walking alone in the area where they live are women.

Figure A D.10. Number and share of Asian countries by level of discrimination in the SIGI 2019

Main progress

Discrimination in the family

Since 2013, 36 countries have set the legal age of marriage above 18 for both women and men; the prevalence of girl child marriage has slightly decreased from 17% in 2012 to 15% in 2018.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2012, 12 countries40 have introduced legislation to combat domestic violence, raising the total to 38; the prevalence of intimate-partner violence against women over the previous 12 months decreased from 21% to 17% from 2014 to 2018.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Since 2013, the law has mandated equal remuneration for work of equal value in 37 countries.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2014, every country in the region has granted equal voting rights to women and men in all types of elections.

Main legal loopholes

Discrimination in the family

Only 6 countries recognise a woman’s right to be the head of the household; while married women are required by law to obey their husbands in 17 countries and are punishable with legal sanctions if they fail to do so in 10 of them.
Women are not provided with the same rights as men to inherit land or non-land assets in 19 countries.

Restricted physical integrity

In six countries, the law has not repealed practices such as reduced sentences or escaping punishment, if the perpetrator of the rape marries the victim.
In 40 countries, the law does not address sexual harassment at the workplace or in educational establishments.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

In 39 countries, there is no legal protection for women’s land rights. Women represent only 12% of the agricultural landowners, making Asia the region with the highest deprivation in this respect.
The law does not require non-discrimination on the basis of sex during the promotion process in 20 countries and women hold only 17% of the management positions in the region.

Restricted civil liberties

In 22 countries, women do not have the same rights as men to confer their nationality on a non-citizen spouse; in 16 countries, women cannot legally apply for a passport in the same way as men.
There is no legal quota designed to promote women’s political participation in 36 countries; the share of women in parliament has decreased from 22% in 2014 to 19% in 2018; 53% of the population believes that men make better political leaders than women do.

Figure A D.11. Asia’s sub-regional scores in the SIGI 2019

Central Asia

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Data on certain sub-indices is available for Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

Since 2012, four countries have raised the legal age of marriage above 18 for both sexes; the prevalence of girl child marriage decreased from 11% to 8% during 2009-2018 in the sub-region.

Restricted physical integrity

Abortion on request is legal in all five countries, making Central Asia the only sub-region in Asia where all women have this entitlement.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Since 2015, all countries have legally established the principle of equal remuneration for work of equal value.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2006, all countries have established a specialised body tasked with monitoring gender equality.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Women’s roles within the household are affected by discriminatory social norms: 46% of the population think that it is problematic if a woman earns more money than her husband does; 87% believe that being a home maker is as fulfilling as working for pay. As a result, women spend twice as much time as men do in unpaid care and domestic work.

Restricted physical integrity

Violence against women is deeply rooted: domestic violence is not a criminal offence in two countries; there is no legal protection against sexual harassment in four countries; 35% of the women believe that domestic violence is justifiable and 10% had been victim of it in the 12 months previous to being questioned.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women’s access to land and non-land property is restricted: no country has a law or policy to promote women’s legal literacy concerning their rights over land and property; only 12% of the landowners and 19% of the house owners are female.

Restricted civil liberties

Women’s access to justice is not guaranteed: no country has legislation to protect women from violence in political and public life; six in ten people who say they have no confidence in the judicial system and courts are women.

Figure A D.12. Asia’s sub-regional scores in the four SIGI 2019 sub-indices

Eastern Asia

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Hong Kong China, Japan, Korea and Mongolia. Data on certain sub-indices is available for Chinese Taipei and People’s Republic of China.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

Three countries in the sub-region have legal sanctions for those who facilitate a child marriage and its prevalence is the lowest in the region (3%, compared to the Asian average of 15%).

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2015, two countries41 have enacted laws addressing domestic violence; the prevalence of intimate-partner violence against women has dropped from 34% to 16% from 2014 to 2018; the social acceptance of such violence also declined from 46% to 31% over the same period.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Since 2015, paid paternity leave has become mandatory in four of the six countries and territories.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2011, 4 countries42 in the sub-region have set legal quotas to promote women’s political participation at national and local level.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Women still have limited rights in marriage and partnerships: the law does not regulate informal or de-facto unions in three countries and territories; official registration of such partnerships is not provided in all six countries and territories.

Restricted physical integrity

The missing women phenomenon continues to be a concern: Eastern Asia has the most uneven sex ratio globally, with 108 boys per 100 girls at birth on average in the region (compared to the natural sex-ratio of 105/100).

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women face invisible barriers to progress at the workplace: the law does not mandate non-discrimination on the basis of sex for promotion in two countries; women hold only 13% of managerial positions.

Restricted civil liberties

Women’s freedom of movement is restricted by feelings of insecurity: they represent 69% of those who say that they do not feel safe when walking alone at night.

The Pacific

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Australia and New Zealand. Data on certain sub-indices is available for Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Solomon Islands.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

In 2009, Fiji raised the minimum legal age of marriage without parental consent to 18 for both women and men, joining the other two countries with such provision in the Pacific sub-region; the female-to-male ratio of time spent on unpaid care and domestic work is 1.8, the lowest in Asia.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2013, three countries43 have enacted a laws addressing domestic violence against women; its prevalence in the last 12 months prior to their being questioned is 4%, according to a survey of women in the sub-region, the lowest in the region (Asian average = 17%).

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Since 2013, there is a legal requirement for equal remuneration for work of equal value in five countries; the percentage of population who believes that it is not acceptable for a woman to have paid work outside the home is 1%, 19 times lower than the Asian average and 15 times lower than the world average; women also represent 50% of bank-account owners and credit-card holders.

Restricted civil liberties

Five countries have established a specialised body tasked with gender monitoring and four of these conduct education and public awareness initiatives on the issue.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Women’s rights in marriages and partnerships are not guaranteed: in half of the countries, the law does not regulate informal or de-facto unions.

Restricted physical integrity

Women’s reproductive autonomy is restricted: in two countries, women can only obtain abortion if the pregnancy threatens their life or results from rape or incest; 15% of women in the sub-region have unmet needs for family planning, compared to the world average of 12%, which is the highest in the region.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women’s land rights remain limited: four countries do not provide legal protection for women’s land rights and only 7% of the agricultural landowners are women.

Restricted civil liberties

Women’s freedom of movement is restricted by feelings of insecurity: they are 78% of the population who say they do not feel safe walking alone at night.

South-Eastern Asia

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam. Data on certain sub-indices is available for Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia and Timor-Leste.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

Since 2015, two countries44 have implemented programmes to support the enforcement of laws on the minimum age of marriage, joining another three in the sub-region that have already adopted similar measures.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2012, seven of the 11 countries of the sub-region have passed a law addressing sexual harassment at the workplace.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Seven countries have promoted gender-sensitive measures to expand women’s access to formal financial services; women represent 51% of bank-account holders and 50% of those who have obtained credit.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2016, five countries have had a law governing the production and/or dissemination of gender statistics.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Women’s status within the family is still subordinate to their husband’s authority: the law requires a married woman to obey her husband in three countries and women face legal sanctions if they fail to do so in 2 of these jurisdictions.

Restricted physical integrity

Domestic violence remains pervasive: four countries do not have a policy or action plan addressing this crime; while one in four women have been affected by domestic violence and three in ten think that this practice is justifiable.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women’s access to land assets is not guaranteed by law: seven countries do not legally protect women’s land rights; the share of women in agricultural landowning has remained unchanged (13%) since 2014.

Restricted civil liberties

Feelings of insecurity restrict women’s freedom of movement: 73% of the population who say they do not feel safe walking alone at night is female.

Southern Asia

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Islamic Republic of Iran, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Data for certain sub-indices is available for Bhutan and Maldives.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

In 2010, India introduced a new law providing women with the same rights as men to be the legal guardians of their children during marriage, raising to four the number of countries in the sub-region with such legislation.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2016, legislation has addressed sexual harassment at the workplace in six of the nine countries in the sub-region.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women have the same rights as men to open a bank account and to obtain credit in all countries; since 2012, seven countries have promoted gender-sensitive measures to expand women’s access to formal financial service.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2017, women are entitled the same rights as men to confer their nationality on their children in eight countries.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Girl child-marriage prevalence is the highest in Asia: eight countries allow it, while 23% of girls aged 15-19 (19 million girls) are or have been married or are in informal unions.

Restricted physical integrity

The preference for sons persists: there are 107 boys per 100 girls at birth on average (compared to the natural sex-ratio of 105/100).

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women still face barriers to progress at the workplace: five countries do not mandate paternity leave and no of them mandates paid parental leave; 31% of the population think that it is not acceptable for a woman to work for pay outside the home; women occupy only 12% of the management positions.

Restricted civil liberties

The under-representation of women in political life persists: five countries have no legal quotas to promote women’s political participation at the national or local level; women hold only 17% of the seats in parliament and 57% of the population thinks that men make better political leaders than women do.

Western Asia

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus,45 Georgia, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey and Yemen. Data on certain sub-indices is available for Bahrain, Israel, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab Republic, United Arab Emirates, and West Bank and Gaza Strip.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

Since 2013, 10 out of 18 countries have established 18 as the minimum legal age of marriage for both women and men; since 2014, forced marriage is prohibited in 11 countries.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2013, three countries46 have enacted legislation addressing domestic violence, raising the number of countries with such provision to nine; the prevalence of declared intimate-partner violence against women in the previous 12 months slightly decreased from 13% in 2014 to 10% in 2018; the social acceptance of the crime has also dropped from 52% in 2012 to 29% in 2018.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Since 2002, the law does not require women to have permission from their husbands to choose a profession in eight countries and to register a business in 13.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2005, two countries47 have adopted laws providing women with the same rights as men to vote, making these rights available to women in all countries in Western Asia.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Women’s status within the family is subordinate to their husbands’ authority: the law requires a married woman to obey her husband in 11 countries.

Restricted physical integrity

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is not restricted to African countries: 17 Western Asian countries do not have a criminal law addressing FGM; while in the countries where data is available 13% of the women have been cut and 11% think that this practice should continue.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women’s access to formal financial services is limited: 10 countries do not have a gender-sensitive measure to ensure the implementation of these rights, while the percentages of women in bank account owners (37%) and credit card holders (30%) are the lowest globally.

Restricted civil liberties

Women’s testimonies do not carry the same evidentiary weight in family courts as men’s in 11 countries.

Box A D.3. The economic cost of gender inequality in Asia

Achievement of gender equality offers an important opportunity for economic growth in Asia. With its current level of discrimination, Asia faces an economic loss of USD 2 283 billion, or 7.5% of the regional GDP. Eastern Asia bears the highest level of GDP loss due to non-fulfilment of gender equality (USD 1 428 billion), followed by Southern Asia (USD 280 billion), Western Asia (USD 229 billion), South-eastern Asia (USD 208 billion), the Pacific (USD 118 billion) and Central Asia (USD 20 billion). Progress towards gender parity leads to sustainable growth of the region. A gradual reduction of the level of discrimination can result in an increase of the annual Asian GDP growth rate by 0.4 percentage points towards by 2030.

Europe

Europe is the best performer in the 2019 edition of the SIGI. The level of discrimination in laws, social norms and practices is 17%, compared to the world average of 30%. All 36 European countries ranked in the SIGI show a very low to low level of gender-based discrimination in social institutions (Figure A D.14). While Eastern Europe48 has a low level of discrimination (SIGI = 20%), the other three sub-regions are all classified as having a very low level of discrimination (SIGI = 18%, 15% and 12% for Southern Europe,49 Northern Europe50 and Western Europe51 respectively) (Figure A D.15).

Discrimination in the family is the principal obstacle to achieving gender equality in Europe (Figure A D.16). While the region is the global pioneer in reducing girl child marriage through legal prohibition and special programmes, girls can be married before their 18^th birthdays in 35 countries. This legal loophole affects mainly women in minority groups: evidence shows that girl child marriages are more prevalent among immigrants, remote rural communities and minority ethnic groups. Social norms tend to define female/male roles in the family unequally: women spend an average of 4.3 hours on unpaid domestic and care work, twice as much as men; 61% of the population believes that being a home maker is just as fulfilling as working for pay.

Restricted civil liberties also constrain women’s empowerment in the Europe (Figure A D.16). The region’s progress in promoting women’s representation in the political sphere has resulted in the highest percentage of women in parliament in the world (29% compared to 24% globally). However, Europe is still far from reaching gender equality in political participation: 24 countries do not apply legal quotas to support women’s participation in decision-making and a third of the population believes that men make better political leaders than women. Additionally, women’s access to the justice system is not fully guaranteed. In 32 countries, there are is legislation or other measures to protect women from violence in political and public life; the law does not require the production and/or dissemination of gender statistics in 24 countries.

Figure A D.14. Number and share of European countries by level of discrimination in the SIGI 2019

Main progress

Discrimination in the family

The region has the lowest prevalence of girl child marriage (3%, compared to 16% globally). Girl child marriage mainly affects immigrants, remote rural communities and ethnic groups (OECD Country Profiles, 2019).

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2010, 3 countries52 have removed restrictions on abortion, making the legal right to obtain on-demand abortion available to women in 33 countries in the region.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Since 2010, 2 countries53 have introduced paid paternity leave, joining the other 28 European countries that have already established such provision.

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2011, 2 countries54 have established legal gender quotas to promote women’s political participation, raising the total number of countries having such legislation to 16; the share of women in parliamentary seats has increased from 22% in 2014 to 29% in 2018, which is the highest ratio among the four regions of the SIGI 2019.

Main legal loopholes

Discrimination in the family

The law does not regulate informal or de-facto unions in 9 countries and does not provide official registration for such partnership in 21 others.
Women spend an average of 4.3 hours on unpaid domestic and care work, twice as long as their male partners; 61% of the population believes that being a home maker is just as fulfilling as working for pay.

Restricted physical integrity

The law does not address sexual harassment in educational establishments in 17 countries and in public spaces in 31 countries.
There is no policy or action plan to address domestic violence in 13 countries; while 21% of European women report their having been subjected to it; 12% believe such violence is justifiable.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

The government does not promote gender-sensitive measures to expand women’s access to formal financial services in 26 countries; women represent 46% of the borrowers from financial institutions.
The law does not mandate non-discrimination on the basis of sex in job advertisements in 9 countries; women are prohibited from entering certain professions in 10 countries.

Restricted civil liberties

In 32 countries, there is no legislation or special measures to protect women from violence in political and public life.
There is no law requiring the production and/or dissemination of gender statistics in 24 countries.

Figure A D.15. Europe’s sub-regional scores in the SIGI 2019

Eastern Europe

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for all the countries in the sub-region, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Republic of Moldova, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovak Republic and Ukraine.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

In seven7 out of 10 countries, child marriage is voided or prohibited.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2010, the definition of rape has included marital rape in 5 five countries. Domestic violence has been prohibited by law in seven countries since 2016; since 2016, the law addresses domestic violence in 7 countries; the reported prevalence of domestic violence during the last previous 12 months has slightly decreased slightly from 7% in 2014 to 5% in 2018.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

In 2010, Poland introduced paid paternity leave in the law, joining the another 4 countries in the sub-region with having such similar legal provision; the percentage of women in management position in Eastern Europe, at (40%) is highest higher than it is in both in Europe (35%) and globally (24%).

Restricted civil liberties

Since 2011, two countries have established legal gender quotas to promote women’s political participation.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Traditional gender roles are entrenched: no country has a law recognising the equal rights of men and women to be considered as the head of household; 74% of the population believes that being a housewife home maker is just as fulfilling as working for a pay.

Restricted physical integrity

Sexual harassment remains a concern: in 5 five countries of the sub-region, the law does not cover sexual harassment in educational establishments and no country has legislation on outlawing sexual harassment at public places.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women’s rights to work is restricted: in 6 six countries, women do not enjoy the same rights to enter all professions as men do.

Restricted civil liberties

Women’s under-representation in decision-making bodies persists: women they represent only 20% of the parliamentarians; 51% of the population thinks than men make better political leaders than women do.

Figure A D.16. Europe’s sub-regional scores in the four SIGI 2019 sub-indices

Northern Europe

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Sweden and United Kingdom. Data on certain sub-indices is available for Iceland.

Key progress

Discrimination in the family

Since 2014, forced marriage has been prohibited in seven out of ten countries; Northern Europe is also one of the 2 sub-regions with lowest prevalence of girl child marriages (2%) together with Western Europe (1%).

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2011, two countries55 have enacted a laws on domestic violence, raising the number with such legislation to eight.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women have the same right as men to open a bank account and obtain credit; they represent 50% of the bank-account owners and credit-cards owner.

Restricted civil liberties

All countries have established a specialised body to monitor gender equality.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Women’s rights in marriages and partnerships are not ensured: the law does not provide official registration of informal or de facto unions in six countries.

Restricted physical integrity

The law does not fully protect women against sexual harassment: there is no legal prohibition of sexual harassment in public places in eight countries and none against cyber harassment in any of the ten countries in the sub-region.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Invisible barriers keep women from progressing at the workplace: the law does not mandate non-discrimination on the basis of sex in job advertisements in four countries and does not prohibit employers’ asking about a woman’s pregnancy or her intention to have children during the recruitment or promotion process in three countries.

Restricted civil liberties

Feelings of insecurity restrict women’s freedom of movement: 63% of those who say they do not feel safe walking alone at night are women.

Southern Europe

Data for all SIGI sub-indices is available for Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (now the Republic of North Macedonia),Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia and Spain. Data on certain sub-indices is available for Kosovo and Montenegro.

Key progress

Discrimination in the Family

Since 2016, the law has prohibited forced marriage in 9 out of 13 countries.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2010, two countries56 have removed restrictions on abortion, joining other ten countries where women have the right to on-demand abortions.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

The law mandates non-discrimination on the basis of sex in job-selection criteria, hiring and promotion in all countries.

Restricted civil liberties

Eleven countries have legal quotas to promote women’s political participation at the local level.

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Discriminatory norms define women’s inferior role within the household: women’s time spent on unpaid care and domestic work is 3 times longer than it is for men; 48% of the population believes that being a home maker is just as fulfilling as paid work.

Restricted physical integrity

Son bias remains a problem: 4 countries have sex ratio above 107 males/females (the natural sex ratio is 105/100).

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Women’s access to financial resources is restricted: ten countries have no gender-sensitive measures to expand women’s access to formal financial services, while women represent only 41% of the persons who have borrowed from a financial institution.

Restricted civil liberties

Women’s access to justice is not guaranteed: 10 countries do not provide for the establishment of courts/tribunals to facilitate women’s access to justice; women represent 53% of the population who say they have no confidence in the judicial system and courts.

Western Europe

Data for all SIGI sub-indices available for Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands and Switzerland. Data on certain sub-indices available for Luxembourg.

Key progress

Discrimination in the Family

The prevalence of girl child marriage is the world’s lowest: 1% of girls aged 15-19 years are or have been married or are in informal unions, compared to 16% globally.

Restricted physical integrity

Since 2013, six of the 7 countries in the sub-region have provided a hotline for victims of domestic violence. Western Europe also has the lowest percentage women reporting domestic violence during the previous 12 months at 4%, compared with the global figure of 15%).

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

Since 2017, five countries have legally mandated paternity leave.

Restricted civil liberties

The share of women in parliament members is the highest in the region at 34%, (29% at the European level).

Key challenges

Discrimination in the family

Women’s rights within the household suffer from social attitudes: one in three people say that when a mother works for pay, the children suffer; one in two agrees that being a home maker is just as fulfilling as a job outside the home.

Restricted physical integrity

Women are still not fully protected from sexual harassment: the law does not address sexual harassment in educational establishments in five countries and fails to consider cyber harassment in six countries.

Restricted access to productive and financial resources

The “glass ceiling” keeps women from advancing at work: women hold only 31% of management positions in the sub-region.

Restricted civil liberties

Women’s access to justice is not universally guaranteed: there is no legislation or measure in place to protect women from violence and political life in four countries.

Box A D.4. The economic cost of gender inequality in Europe

Fulfilment of gender parity presents a considerable economic opportunity for Europe. The current level of gender-based discrimination in social institutions, costs Europe USD 1 516 billion, or 7.5% of the region’s GDP. Western Europe suffers the highest shortfall (USD 655 billion), followed by Northern Europe (USD 345 billion), Southern Europe (USD 291 billion) and Eastern Europe (USD 225 billion). Tackling gender inequality helps European countries turn challenges into opportunities. A gradual reduction of the level of discrimination by 2030 could increase the annual GDP growth rate of Europe by 0.4 percentage points over the course of the 11 years to 2030.

References

[1] Guttmacher Institute (2018), Fact Sheet: Abortion in Africa, Guttmacher Institute, New York City, https://www.guttmacher.org/sites/default/files/factsheet/ib_aww-africa.pdf (accessed on 16 January 2019).

[3] ILO (2015), Global Wage Report 2014/15: Wages and Income Inequality, International Labour Organization, Geneva, https://www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/global-wage-report/2014/lang--en/index.htm (accessed on 16 January 2019).

[2] WHO (2012), “Unsafe abortion incidence and mortality: Global and regional levels in 2008 and trends during 1990-2008, Information Fact Sheet”, World Health Organization, Geneva, http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/75173/WHO_RHR_12.01_eng.pdf;jsessionid=0BCA47216FBE36422FC2069C320AFC27?sequence=1 (accessed on 16 January 2019).

Notes

← 1. Morroco and Tunisia

← 2. Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo and Gabon

← 3. Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo.

← 4. Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

← 5. Lesotho, Namibia and South Africa

← 6. Gabon, Kenya, Malawi, Mali and Rwanda

← 7. Algeria, Angola, Benin, Comoros, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Tunisia, Uganda and Zambia

← 8. Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gambia, Guinea, Liberia, Libya and Niger

← 9. Algeria, Egypt, Lesotho, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Republic of the Congo, Somalia, South Sudan, Tunisia, Togo and Zimbabwe

← 10. Burundi, Comoros, Kenya, Malawi, Somalia, Uganda and Zambia

← 11. Somalia, South Sudan and Zimbabwe

← 12. Cameroon, Chad and Sao Tome and Principe

← 13. Algeria, Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia

← 14. Algeria and Tunisia

← 15. Algeria, Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia

← 16. Mali and Togo

← 17. Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Guinea, Liberia and Niger

← 18. Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger and Senegal

← 19. Canada and the United States.

← 20. Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico and Nicaragua.

← 21. Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, Plurinational State of Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay

← 22. Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago

← 23. The second country is Papua New Guinea

← 24. No estimate are shown for Northern America where the incidence of unsafe abortion is negligible

← 25. Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Grenada, Guyana and Plurinational State of Bolivia

← 26. Chile, Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (2015)

← 27. No estimate is shown for Northern America where the incidence of unsafe abortion is negligible

← 28. Barbados, Dominica and Grenada

← 29. El Salvador, Nicaragua and Panama

← 30. Ecuador, Paraguay and Plurinational State of Bolivia

← 31. Chile, Colombia and Paraguay

← 32. Colombia and Peru

← 33. Colombia and Plurinational State of Bolivia

← 34. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan

← 35. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Georgia, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey and Yemen

Note by Turkey: The information in this document with reference to “Cyprus” relates to the southern part of the Island. There is no single authority representing both Turkish and Greek Cypriot people on the Island. Turkey recognises the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). Until a lasting and equitable solution is found within the context of the United Nations, Turkey shall preserve its position concerning the “Cyprus issue”.

Note by all the European Union Member States of the OECD and the European Union: The Republic of Cyprus is recognised by all members of the United Nations with the exception of Turkey. The information in this document relates to the area under the effective control of the Government of the Republic of Cyprus.

← 36. Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam

← 37. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan

← 38. Hong Kong China, Japan, Korea and Mongolia

← 39. Australia and New Zealand

← 40. Bahrain, Bhutan, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Lebanon, Maldives, Mongolia, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, People’s Republic of China, Samoa, Saudi Arabia and Solomon Islands

← 41. Mongolia and People’s Republic of China

← 42. Mongolia, Korea, People’s Republic of China and Chinese Taipei

← 43. Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Solomon Islands

← 44. Cambodia and Lao People’s Democratic Republic

← 45. Note by Turkey: The information in this document with reference to “Cyprus” relates to the southern part of the Island. There is no single authority representing both Turkish and Greek Cypriot people on the Island. Turkey recognises the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). Until a lasting and equitable solution is found within the context of the United Nations, Turkey shall preserve its position concerning the “Cyprus issue”.

← 46. Bahrain, Lebanon and Saudi Arabia

← 47. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia

← 48. Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Republic of Moldova, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovak Republic and Ukraine

← 49. Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (now the Republic of North Macedonia), Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia and Spain

← 50. Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Sweden and United Kingdom

← 51. Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands and Switzerland

← 52. Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (now the Republic of North Macedonia), Luxembourg and Spain

← 53. Austria and Poland

← 54. Poland (2011) and Republic of Moldova (2016)

← 55. Latvia and Lithuania

← 56. Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (now the Republic of North Macedonia), and Spain

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