Although programmes combining school- and work-based learning offer many labour-market advantages (e.g. contact with potential employers, or learning technical and socio-emotional skills from experienced colleagues), on average, only 45% of students in upper secondary vocational education in OECD countries are enrolled in programmes with significant work-based learning elements. Enrolment in upper secondary programmes combining school- and work-based learning increased by 3 percentage points between 2015 and 2021 in countries with data for both years.

Access to tertiary education matters, both to make VET programmes attractive and to allow VET graduates to further develop their skills or change career paths. About three-quarters of upper secondary vocational students are pursuing programmes that yield direct access to tertiary education. In most cases this means eligibility for all types of tertiary education, but in some countries, access is limited to short-cycle tertiary education or to some applied, professionally oriented bachelor’s programmes. In many countries, learners also have the option of following a bridging programme at upper secondary level to gain access to tertiary studies.

Learners from less advantaged social backgrounds tend to be over-represented in vocational programmes. In all countries with available data, the share of students with at least one tertiary-educated parent is considerably higher in upper secondary general programmes than in vocational ones.

The share of female students tends to be significantly lower in upper secondary vocational programmes than in general programmes. On average across OECD countries, women make up 53% of graduates from general upper secondary programmes, compared to 45% of those from vocational ones.

Programme completion rates are an important measure for determining the success and efficiency of vocational education and training. A smaller share of those enrolled in upper secondary vocational education complete their programme within its theoretical duration (62%) than those in general education (77%).

Both male students enrolled in upper secondary vocational education and those enrolled in VET programmes that do not give direct access to tertiary education are less likely to complete upper secondary education than the other upper secondary VET students, even after an additional two years.

Acquiring an upper secondary vocational qualification reduces the risk of unemployment in all countries, and facilitates access to employment. On average in OECD countries, the employment rate for 25-34 year-olds with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education as their highest attainment is 83% for those with a vocational qualification and 73% for those with a general one.

Among those with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment, the earnings difference by programme orientation is small or even negligible among 25-34 year-olds but widens among 45-54 year-olds, usually in favour of those with a general qualification. However, in many countries, only a very small share of the population has general upper secondary attainment as highest level of education and most graduates go on to study at tertiary level.

Gender gaps in employment and wages persist in virtually all countries. On average across OECD countries, 74% of 25-34 year-old women who attained a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary programme as their highest level of educational attainment are employed, against 89% of their male peers.

Upper secondary VET graduates are less likely to continue in education than their peers from general programmes. On average across OECD countries, 29% of 25-29 year-olds with general upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment are in education, the rest are either employed or neither employed nor in education or training (NEET). Those with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment are much less likely to be enrolled in education (only 9% on average) while 75% are employed and around 17% NEET.

As they often require specific equipment and infrastructure, vocational education and training programmes typically cost more per student than general programmes. On average across OECD countries, total expenditure on educational institutions per student in 2020 is about USD 11 400 in general upper secondary programmes, compared to about USD 13 200 in vocational ones.

The teaching profession in vocational education is ageing, which may create a problem in renewing the workforce over the next decade. On average across the 25 OECD countries with available data, 45% of teachers in upper secondary VET programmes were at least 50 years old in 2021, compared to 41% in 2013. This share is higher than for general education teachers (38% in 2021). The issue may be more pronounced in vocational education because of the fact that some teachers gain industry experience before joining the profession.

The student-to-teaching-staff ratio in vocational programmes across OECD countries is higher than in general programmes, with 15 students per teacher on average in VET compared to 14 in general programmes, which can raise problems for the quality of learning.