This chapter explores how countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region have made efforts to build a victim/survivor governance and service culture which focuses on understanding and implementing victims’/survivors’ needs and interests, ensuring the accessibility of public services, building capacities of service providers, and engaging men and boys in prevention initiatives. The chapter pays particular attention to how these efforts were influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic.
Tackling Violence Against Women in the Middle East and North Africa
2. Fostering a victim/survivor-centred governance and service culture to eradicate violence against women in the Middle East and North Africa region
Abstract
Key Findings
Stigma, restrictive cultural and masculine norms, and economic dependence continue to be the major barriers for victims/survivors of VAW to share and report their experiences in the MENA region. Under-reporting weakens data collection efforts, obstructing efficient VAW responses and policy design.
All surveyed MENA countries have recognised the potential of risk assessment and management as powerful tools to prevent incidences of violence through the establishment of cross-sectoral data-sharing practices. The primary sources of information in the surveyed MENA countries are shelters, NGOs and the police, but the justice sector was found to be among the least engaged in data-collection efforts.
The COVID-19 pandemic depleted resources allocated to “non-essential” VAW services, including shelters, housing or counselling, but MENA countries found innovative ways to increase access to information and make reporting easier through use of information technologies.
Integrated services show promising potential to empower victims/survivors and remove social, financial barriers to receiving adequate and comprehensive range of services. Surveyed MENA countries have started introducing initiatives for integrated approaches, but there is scope to intensify the integration and collaboration between services.
Capacities of service providers are essential for a victim/survivor-centred approach and quick and efficient responses. Surveyed MENA countries have made significant progress in training VAW service providers, even during the COVID-19 pandemic. At the same time, training for law enforcement authorities needs to be reinforced, as they are often the “first responders” to VAW cases, but dissuasive attitudes remain among them which can lead to a failure in adequate protection of victims/survivors.
MENA countries have shown commitment to inciting behavioural change among men and boys as a strategy of VAW prevention through the introduction of several initiatives, including community and education-based programmes.
2.1. Victim/survivor-centred culture and approaches: key elements
In order to create a culture where VAW can be properly addressed, changes in policy frameworks should be accompanied by a profound shift in the conception and delivery of VAW services. Namely, service providers and authorities should put victims/survivors’ experiences at the centre of their approach, tailoring to their needs and seeking to empower them within every stage and form of VAW assistance. This notion reflects the second “culture” pillar of the OECD whole-of-state approach to tackling VAW (OECD, 2021[1]). It encompasses elements relevant to detection and prevention; information sharing; capacity building; co-ordination efforts; and engaging men and boys. Such a victim/survivor-centred culture requires that embedded funds be dedicated to the provision of services and programming and thrives to incorporate the principle of intersectionality across all VAW-related policies and programming (OECD, 2021[1]).
2.1.1. Data collection and information sharing
Under-reporting
Domestic violence is under-reported around the world and especially in the MENA region (ESCWA, 2020[2]), as a consequence of various and merging individual and societal-level barriers and systemic failures. In MENA and beyond, a “culture of silence” often normalises VAW and can encourage women to tolerate abuse to ensure family stability (UN Women, 2020[3]). Victims/survivors’ may be reluctant to admit abuse for a variety of reasons: stigma, cultural norms, fear of harm (towards themselves and their loved ones), inadequate ability to self-support, and low levels of trust in law enforcement actors. This means that many cases of violence go unreported (OECD, 2020[4]) (OECD, 2021[1]) (OECD, 2023[5]) (OECD, 2023[6]). For example, abusers may manipulate victims/survivors to dissuade them from reporting while victims/survivors may not recognise their experience as domestic violence or be unaware of available support services. Victims/survivors may fear retaliation by their abusers; or may fear stigmatisation by service-providers or by their own community if they report abuse. They may also lack trust in the criminal justice system (OECD, 2020[4]) and fear negative consequences such as losing custody of their children or being re-victimised in the legal processes. Furthermore, victims/survivors may be too financially dependent on their abusers to consider leaving them or to have control over sufficient resources (access to communications tools or to transportation means) to report violence.
Including in OECD countries, under-reporting represents a fundamental challenge in collecting accurate data on VAW (OECD, 2023[6]). As such, it is critical that governments address this issue and adapt their responses to adequately detect VAW. The collection of reliable data would strengthen the knowledge base on the incidence and prevalence of different forms of VAW, which is a condition for fulfilling this obligation through informed policy and strategy development. An improved knowledge base would also help better measure the access of women victims of violence to public services and adapt the provision and quality of services as necessary. If collected regularly and over time, reliable data would allow for better monitoring of progress towards meeting international standards and obligations regarding VAW (OECD/CAWTAR, 2014[7]).
Efforts to better capture the prevalence and forms of VAW should start by considering how to estimate prevalence more accurately (OECD, 2020[4]). Survey questions, for example, should be designed to make sure that victims/survivors feel safe to answer honestly. A comprehensive data collection strategy should also employ a variety of sources – including administrative and survey data, as well as data collected by other service providers (OECD, 2021[1]). More in general, overcoming under-reporting of VAW calls for increasing awareness and education to reduce the stigma and encourage people to report; providing safe and confidential reporting mechanisms (such as hotlines, online reporting forms and secure reporting channels) to reduce fears of retaliation or further violence; and training service providers (such as health care workers and police officers) to recognise signs of VAW and how to respond appropriately (OECD, 2023[6]). Involving community leaders and organisations in encouraging reporting and addressing legal and policy barriers, such as restrictive laws or biased attitudes among law enforcement officials, may also be effective in improving victims/survivors’ confidence in the reporting process. Training may also help get better and more rapid identification and reporting of cases of violence, supporting governments in defining a clearer picture of the incidence and extent of VAW (OECD, 2023[6]). Box 2.1 describes some promising practices of OECD countries in strengthened data collection efforts through administrative records and population-based surveys for assessing the prevalence and various characteristics of victims/survivors, perpetrators and circumstances of the violence.
Box 2.1. OECD countries’ initiatives for robust, disaggregated data collection efforts on VAW
Finland’s disaggregation of administrative data records
In Finland, comprehensive data is collected on VAW, which can be broken down by various factors such as gender, religion, occupation, age group, housing arrangements, and more. This data encompasses various forms of VAW, including domestic violence, sexual violence (including rape), physical violence, psychological violence, economic violence, stalking, and other forms. Furthermore, Finland maintains robust data on homicides, containing a range of variables. This data includes information about the relationship between the victim/survivor and the perpetrator (e.g., partner, ex-partner, family member, acquaintance, stranger), demographic details (such as gender, age, and marital status), and key characteristics of the homicides. Additionally, the data includes information about the perpetrator's prior criminal history and any warning signs, such as restraining orders, shelter stays, threats, or fears. The Finnish Homicide Monitor, administered by the Institute of Criminology and Legal Policy at the University of Helsinki, is responsible for compiling detailed information on homicide cases. The effectiveness of this system can be attributed to the use of a standardised electronic data collection form and the mandatory requirement for all investigating police officers to submit data.
Mexico’s population-based survey
In Mexico, the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI) released the National Survey on the Dynamics of Household Relations (ENDIREH) in August 2022. This extensive survey provides detailed data breakdowns, including the type and location of violence, intersectional vulnerabilities, and reasons for not reporting incidents. It marks the fifth edition in a series of statistical reports on the status of VAW in Mexico. The survey also delves into the environments where violence occurs, such as within women's communities, couples, schools, or workplaces. Data is further analysed based on the women's regional origins. Regarding domestic violence, the survey captures various forms beyond physical and sexual violence, including psychological and economic abuse. It tracks whether violence occurred throughout the relationship or within the last 12 months and specifies the age group of the affected women. Conducted among women and girls aged 15 and above, the survey reached 140,784 households in total.
Source: (OECD, 2023[6]), Breaking the cycle of gender-based violence: Translating evidence into action for victim/survivor-centred governance.
VAW assessment and detection
The systematic collection, monitoring, and dissemination of reliable and relevant data and statistics on VAW are crucial for effective VAW-sensitive policymaking (OECD, 2023[6]). A victim/survivor-centred culture requires robust data collection efforts, including risk assessments and multi-sided information sharing to better understand patterns of VAW and respond to them (OECD, 2021[1]). Such efforts can help reach VAW estimates that are as reflexive as possible of the phenomenon’s real scale. In turn, collected data can help inform the design and targets of VAW policies and provide a measure of their short and long-term impact.
More immediately, risk assessments can help prevent the reoccurrence of violence and potential femicides/feminicides. Indeed, case-by-case assessments can allow for the early identification of high-risk individuals through an analysis of the history of violence, access to weapons, substance abuse, mental health issues and controlling behaviour. The early detection is supported by screening tools and referral to VAW services, which can enable life-saving interventions, including the issuance of protection measures to keep abusers at a distance from victims/survivors, or therapy and substance abuse treatment to prevent future violent behaviours. By maintaining consistent oversight, the risk of reoccurrence can be minimised, making risk assessments a necessary component in VAW responses (OECD, 2021[1]). The actors that most commonly use risk assessment tools, which include justice agencies (such as police and courts) and social workers, need to be adequately trained to use screening and assessment tools and to be able to interact with victims/survivors applying a gender-sensitive approach. Effective risk assessment relies on co-ordination amongst the actors using these tools, and importantly through an exchange of data across services involved (OECD, 2023[5]) (OECD, 2023[6]).
Adequate data collection requires gathering data from diverse parties (such as public, private, and non-governmental entities) and sources, including qualitative and quantitative studies, surveys, police records, court records, or health facilities (OECD, 2021[1]). As victims/survivors may not always report instances of violence to formal authorities or service providers, data-collection mechanisms should seek to train and integrate a wide range of actors with whom they regularly interact (e.g., education, social workers, healthcare providers) to contribute to VAW-detection efforts (OECD, 2021[1]).
Importantly, while VAW-sensitive policymaking and VAW risk assessment are based on data-sharing across agencies and across sectors, it is key that victims/survivors’ privacy and security are prioritised (OECD, 2023[8]). Digital data sharing could be a way to better ensure privacy and security, where several steps can be taken to secure access to information, particularly about individual victims/survivors.
All surveyed MENA countries reported having established cross-sectoral data-sharing practices to measure VAW, using a variety of data sources (Figure 2.1). However, according to SIGI 2023, only half of MENA countries have nationally representative data on IPV prevalence (12 months), which highlights that governments should strengthen their commitments to understanding the full scale of the phenomena (OECD Development Centre/OECD, 2023[9]).
Shelters and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are primary sources of information in MENA countries’ data collection efforts. Among public actors, the police are major partners in data sharing. In Lebanon, Internal Security Forces (ISF) report monthly information on domestic violence cases to the National Commission for Lebanese Women (the country’s gender equality institution in charge of intersectoral co-ordination efforts). The ISF provides a wealth of information on the number of phone-based queries it registers through its hotlines, including: nationality and region of the victim/survivor; the type of violence involved (physical, sexual, economic, moral); the number of reported victims/survivors within the household; the relationship to the perpetrator; type of services offered in response (protection, legal, counselling, shelters, or other); time of call; and sex of the police officer receiving the call (based on the ISF reporting form provided by Lebanon as part of its response to follow-up questions to the 2022 OECD Survey on Strengthening Governance and Victim/survivor-centred Approaches to end VAW in MENA). MENA countries may also use National Statistics Offices (NSOs) to develop population-based surveys for more accurate depictions of prevalence of VAW. For example, the Palestinian Authority reported conducting a domestic violence survey every six years, through the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics.
Despite the importance of source-diversification in the measurement of VAW – notably, to raise cross-sectoral awareness, fill data gaps linked to underreporting and triangulate information – only a handful of public sectors are solicited in data collection efforts in the MENA region (Figure 2.1). The justice sector’s contributions to data-collection efforts appear to be among the most limited ones. Yet, complaint files and court records including information on charges, legal proceedings, outcomes, and protective orders would be invaluable in efforts to collect greater data in relation to VAW.
In collecting data, the harmonisation of indicators is essential for effective verification, compilation and circulation. In its survey response, Jordan highlighted that the lack of homogenised data-collection registries across its co-ordination body hampered its ability to measure VAW.
Moreover, the integration of an intersectional analysis in data collection is fundamental to identify patterns of oppression that expose women to greater risks of violence and to adapt policies accordingly (OECD, 2023[6]). Such an approach considers the various and interconnected individual factors impacting victims/survivors’ experience of VAW, including ethnicity, class, religion, disability, migrant or refugee status, etc. However, across the MENA region’s VAW-responses, the integration of intersectionality remains limited due to multifaceted challenges, at the core of which lies a limited understanding or acknowledgment of the interconnectedness of different forms of discrimination. To date, most legislations and policies in the MENA region tend to address VAW-related issues in isolation, without considering other intersecting identities such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, or sexual orientation. This resistance may be linked to deep-rooted cultural and traditional norms that reinforce gender roles, hierarchies, and discriminatory practices and render invisible the oppression of different marginalised groups. Challenging deeply ingrained beliefs and practices requires sustained efforts to raise awareness, foster dialogue, and promote inclusive attitudes among individuals, communities, and institutions. This resistance is both a cause and consequence of the limited research on the specific challenges faced by marginalised groups of women. Without accurate data, it is harder to develop targeted policies and interventions that address the intersecting dimensions of VAW.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, where face-to-face access to authorities and service providers was disrupted, some of the surveyed MENA countries introduced alternative mechanisms to detect VAW cases. For instance, as early as April 4-14, 2020, Egypt reportedly launched a rapid assessment through a phone-based survey to overcome the barriers of COVID-19 confinement measures. Reaching 1 518 women, the survey revealed 7% of married women reporting unprecedented verbal abuse by their husbands and identified a 19% increase in violence among family members. The survey results provided evidence that could help anticipate the impact of the pandemic on the rising rates of VAW, informing the preliminary and emergency measures rolled out by the country (Box 2.2). However, these efforts were not mirrored across the region. In its survey response, Jordan pointed to the scarcity of data collected by the health and social sectors impeded VAW-monitoring efforts, during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic.
In the future, therefore, MENA countries could consider expanding and harmonising the collection of data disaggregated by gender and other individual characteristics to inform gender-sensitive policy choices and processes, including in emergency contexts. Moreover, as a whole-of-state framework to eliminating VAW requires fostering a truly collaborative culture of information sharing across all sectors, including the judiciary, countries should ensure all ministries provide information and relevant co-ordination actors systematise data collection using standard indicators and information registries (GBVIMS, n.d.[10]). Similarly, it is important for MENA countries to seek to expand data collection sources, including through the engagement of non-governmental and private actors and the implementation of “no wrong door approaches” via which a multitude of victims/survivors service providers, general public servants, and private sector figures are sufficiently informed to detect potential VAW and refer victims/survivors to appropriate authorities. This is especially important during confinements where survivors have restricted privacy and freedom of movement to report VAW.
Hotlines
Empowering victims/survivors entails, at a minimum, that relevant information is sufficiently available in a range of formats and easily accessible mediums to them.
All surveyed MENA countries have reportedly set up or expanded the operating hours of toll-free 24/7 hotlines to help women report VAW and have scaled up efforts to disseminate information about these hotlines via social media (Facebook, Instagram, Twitter), press releases, video advertisements, radio, and lamp posts. For example, the Jordanian National Commission for Women mapped out all services provided to survivors in the country and published a list of hotlines affiliated with the “Family Protection Unit” and NGOs. This was organised by governorate and geolocations to facilitate more relevant location-specific support to victims/survivors throughout the country. In March 2022, the Tunisian government issued a circular requiring that women victims of violence, whoever the perpetrator, be given protection as soon as possible. The State has also opened ten shelters for victims of violence, with several more to be opened throughout the country in the future. In November 2022, a 24-hour helpline (1899) was set up (OHCHR, 2023[11]). In Egypt, the Complaint Office within the National Council for Women (NCW) has set a hotline to provide women with free legal advice and psychological support.
Given the constraints imposed by COVID-19 lockdowns, it was acknowledged that victims/survivors may be under increased surveillance from abusers, leading to restrictions in “access to information” sources through which victims/survivors could access vital services (ESCWA, 2020[12]). In Lebanon, the NGO Abaad launched a national awareness-raising campaign in April 2020, under the hashtag #LockdownNotLockup, prompting populations to share hotline numbers from their balconies for victims/survivors in need (ABAAD, 2020[13]).
Considering the convoluted barriers victims/survivors may face in reporting VAW, it is important that governments diversify reporting channels beyond helplines, such as with SMS or web-based means and the use of code-word reporting systems at frequently visited places (OECD, 2021[1]). While in 2020, the international community called on all governments to set up emergency warning systems in pharmacies and grocery stores as part of prevention and screening (United Nations, 2020[14]). However, no surveyed MENA country reported setting up such systems.
In the future, to promote evidence-based victim/survivor-centred VAW advocacy and policy making, MENA countries could consider engaging with rapid assessments and “big data” to collect information on VAW, while upholding strict privacy protection principles. As also explained in the previous subsection, it would be important for MENA countries to continue expanding data collection sources beyond traditional ones, by involving a wide range of actors interacting with victims/survivors.
2.1.2. Service provision
During the COVID-19 outbreak, in the MENA region the health-response needs were prioritised over survivor/victim support services which were considered non-essential (ESCWA, 2020[2]). This led to a depletion of already limited services for victims/survivors in MENA countries, including shelters, housing, counselling, healthcare and justice services (UN Women, 2020[15]).
However, the crisis has also revealed the resourcefulness of state and non-state victim/survivor support service providers who strived to co-ordinate their efforts, integrate their services, and digitise outreach activities. For example, as described above, the Jordanian National Commission for Women has mapped all available VAW services and circulated them via social media and TV channels.
Integrated services
A victim/survivor-centred approach should empower survivors by facilitating their access to information services and reporting channels, especially in times of crises where their mobility and freedom is restricted. Under such an approach, service providers seek to integrate their services in different ways: by concentrating a wide array of relevant service-providers (e.g., medical providers, counsellors, lawyers, police, shelters) in a single location or “one stop shop” (OECD, 2021[1]); by sharing and linking data across providers; by fostering local referral networks of connected (if not physically) providers; or by co-ordinating service provision across different services through a centralised case worker (OECD, 2023[5]). Box 2.2 shows examples from OECD countries on integrating VAW services across health and housing sectors.
Box 2.2. Integrated service delivery examples in OECD countries
The United Kingdom’s experience in integrating VAW services within the health sector
In England, pilot programmes introduced Independent Domestic Violence Advisers (IDVAs) within National Health Service (NHS) facilities to manage cases of intimate partner violence. After the pilots ended in 2020, some NHS sites retained co-located IDVAs, and they expanded into new hospitals. The Pathfinder Project, an Independent Sexual Violence Adviser (ISVA) initiative, underwent impact analyses and improved users' well-being. The model became a best practice with a toolkit for implementation, although progress since 2020 is uncertain due to its non-mandatory status.
Themis, a 2012-2015 pilot in collaboration with SafeLives, placed IDVAs in hospital emergency and maternity wards. They provided GBV training to healthcare staff, immediate support through safety planning, and referrals to various services.
The Pathfinder Project, from 2017-2020, with non-governmental partners, co-located IDVAs in eight additional hospitals. It saw a 10% quarterly increase in referrals on average. IDVAs participated in multi-agency risk assessment conferences (MARACs) and reported improved well-being for users exiting services, with reduced or stopped abuse, especially physical.
The United States’ Domestic Violence Housing First (DVHF) Model
Acknowledging that domestic violence is a leading contributor to homelessness and housing instability, the DVHF Model in the United States strives to aid women who have left abusive homes in securing safe and stable housing. The Model prioritises placing victims/survivors in stable housing and subsequently providing comprehensive support. This approach is rooted in the established “Housing First” model, which has been successful in assisting other vulnerable populations with complex needs, such as individuals with mental health issues. A quasi-experimental, longitudinal evaluation study of DVHF tracked the progress of women for a two-year period after they sought assistance from one of five participating Domestic Violence agencies in Washington state. The evaluation assessed the effectiveness of two key components of the model: mobile housing-related advocacy and flexible funding. The findings indicate that, after 24 months, the DVHF model proves more effective than conventional services in helping survivors achieve housing stability, safety, and improved mental well-being. These positive outcomes became evident shortly after the initial six months and remained consistent over the full two-year duration.
Source: (OECD, 2023[5]), Supporting Lives Free from Intimate Partner Violence: Towards better integration of services for victims/survivors.
In Bahrain, “Dar Al-Aman”, established in 2006 and operating under the Ministry of Social Development, provides temporary shelter for abused women and minors under their care, and offers them social, psychological, and legal advice. The centre receives cases around the clock and handles them in co-operation with the concerned authorities during the shelter period and follows up the cases post shelter. In addition, Bahrain has implemented several initiatives to aid victims/survivors of VAW. The Child Protection Centre ensures child well-being through social services and family rehabilitation. Social Centres enhance family communication, addressing obstacles, while Family Guidance Offices offer counselling and specialised programmes. Family and Child Protection Offices in police stations provide protection, offering legal and psychological guidance in cases of domestic violence. In Lebanon, under the framework of the “Strategic Plan for the Protection of Women and Children in Lebanon 2020-2027”, the Ministry of Social Affairs set up 12 safe spaces (including one additional shelter set up during the pandemic) for victims/survivors to provide a range of specialised services. These include primary healthcare, psychosocial support, case management, and capacity building. The Palestinian Authority has set up a National Referral System (NRS) as part of its national strategy, which provides a set of guidelines for the co-ordination and information sharing of health, social, legal and police institutions. Through the NRS, victims/survivors can be referred to shelters and then granted integrated health, social and legal services (UNESCWA, 2023[16]).
All surveyed MENA countries have engaged in some form of support service integration, notably Egypt (Box 2.3).
Box 2.3. Egypt’s One-Stop-Centre: the protection of women victims of violence
Pursuant to Decree No. 827 issued by the Prime Minister in 2021, Egypt established a Collective Unit for the Protection of Women from Violence. A reception centre integrates various support services (National Council for Women, National Council for Childhood and motherhood, Ministry of justice, Ministry of Health and population, public prosecution, Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Social Solidarity) into a single location and state authorities to facilitate victims/survivors’ access to protection and justice. Services offered included:
Reception and examination of victims/survivors’ reporting of VAW and co-ordination with relevant ministries and authorities to facilitate the filing and processing of their legal complaints against abusers;
Co-ordination with relevant ministries and concerned authorities to provide suitable accommodation for victims/survivors during investigations;
Referral of survivors to a network of support services providing legal aid, health, psychosocial and social services.
Source: Information provided by the government of Egypt in response to the 2022 OECD survey on Strengthening Governance and Victim/survivor-centred Approaches to end VAW in MENA; (Beljah F., 2021[17]).
Building on their past and current efforts, MENA countries should continue mainstream the integration of the various services provided to victims/survivors through a “no wrong door approach”, with the aim to improve service delivery and make sure that help-seekers are not turned away or left with outstanding needs. To this effect, countries could promote, for example: co-location of specialised services; information-sharing and training co-ordination across agencies; deep co-operation across agencies working on individual cases towards pre-determined consistent goals, etc. (OECD, 2023[5]).
Information and communication technology
As COVID-19 lockdowns prevented or curtailed service-providers’ ability to engage in face-to-face delivery of activities and outreach, service providers across MENA have displayed significant efforts to utilise Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to facilitate victims/survivors’ access to information and essential services amidst lockdowns.
Recognising hotlines alone would not suffice to facilitate victims/survivors’ reporting of domestic violence under lockdown (due to a lack of privacy in their isolation with their abusers), MENA countries have established alternative channels to engage with victims/survivors, including websites, mobile apps and Facebook providing case management, psychosocial support, and information relating to rights and services (ESCWA, 2020[2]). For example, in Morocco’s emergency response to VAW during the COVID-19 pandemic, multifaceted ICT tools were used to facilitate victims/survivors’ access to services throughout the country (Box 2.4). Among the measures put in place in 2020, 69 centres for listening and legal guidance were reportedly established with the support of the Ministry of Solidarity, Social Insertion and Family to help women victims of violence. OECD countries have also taken similar measures, such as Türkiye (Box 2.4).
Box 2.4. Information and communication technologies to tackle VAW in MENA and OECD countries
Morocco’s digital outreach efforts NajatBot & Kolona Maak
In January 2020, the National Union of Moroccan Women launched “Kolona Maak” (“All of us with you”), a pioneering listening platform providing 24/7 support to victims/survivors, via a toll-free helpline (8350), accessible via telephone or Facebook’s messaging application, or via a free downloadable mobile application. The platform creates links between the Ministry of Solidarity, Social Insertion and Family, the Office of the Public Prosecutor, police authorities, the Ministry of Health, and Social Protection, and other relevant stakeholder such as the Ministry of Justice, Barid Bank, the Office of Vocational Training and Employment Promotion, the National Agency for the Promotion of Employment and Skills, including 105 multifunctional facilities for women and shelters for victims/survivors. In March 2020, a digital awareness campaign was set up to raise awareness and combat violence against women and girls. In December 2020, the National Union of Moroccan Women partnered with the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) to launch "NajatBot", the first conversational software robot (ChatBot) used to guide victims/survivors of violence. NajatBot provides automated information to its users in Moroccan dialect and automatically directs urgent cases to the "Kolona Maak" referral platform for immediate interventions.
Türkiye’s KADES application
In 2018, the Ministry of Interior of Türkiye launched KADES, a mobile application which aims to ensure effective and rapid intervention for victims of violence. KADES grants users 24/7 access to law enforcement units through a dedicated Request Help button. Upon identification of a need, victims are directed to receive service from Centres affiliated with the Ministry. The application offers services in eleven languages, including Turkish, Arabic, English, French, German, Persian, Kyrgyz, Kurdish, Spanish, Uzbek, and Russian.
Source: Information provided by the government of Morocco in response to the 2022 OECD survey on Strengthening Governance and Victim/survivor-centred Approaches to end VAW in MENA; (UNFPA, 2020[18]) (Mobilizing for Rights Association, 2020[19]); Information provided by the government of Türkiye in 2024..
The host of measures implemented to digitalise VAW support services under the COVID-19 pandemic can prove highly valuable in addressing future crises. In 2020, an impact assessment conducted by the Inter-Agency Sexual and Gender Based Violence Taskforce in Lebanon found that 86% of victims/survivors who used remote services considered them equally or more helpful than in-person services (Inter-Agency SGBV Task Force Lebanon, 2020[20]).
To optimise its outreach to victims/survivors beyond the crisis, it would be important for MENA countries to keep expanding the digitalisation of their service provision, while continuing the provision of face-to-face services to ensure the most marginalised groups of women with limited digital literacy or constrained access to technological devices receive the support they need. Monitoring and evaluation efforts should also be deployed to assess the impact of digitalised services, with particular attention to safety and privacy concerns entailed in the digitalisation of support services.
Shelters
Shelters are life-saving services for victims/survivors (OECD, 2023[6]; OECD, 2023[8]) and are thus essential to a victim/survivor-centred approach (OECD, 2021[1]). Worldwide, and in the MENA region, the increase in need for safe accommodation due to surge in VAW and social distancing measures imposed by the global pandemic have strained shelters’ hosting capacity as they faced overcrowding or closures owing to fear of infection or decreases in funding (ESCWA, 2020[2]). Confronted with these structural challenges, MENA countries have sought to secure and expand victims/survivors’ access to shelters as described in Box 2.5.
Box 2.5. Efforts made by MENA countries to ensure victims/survivors’ access to shelters during the COVID-19 pandemic
To face challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, in 2022 Bahrain reported efforts were underway to expand the hosting capacity of “Dar AlAman”, from 60 to 150 women. In Egypt, shelter services ceased at the onset of the pandemic and no additional shelter was set up during the crisis despite NGOs’ advocacy for increased shelter spaces. However, some shelters were redesigned to accommodate a dedicated room for quarantining, and the government distributed Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) to facilitate survivors/victim’s safe access to shelters during COVID-19. In Jordan, the Family Protection department of Public Security Directorate reported having organised the transportation of survivors to shelters under lockdowns. In Morocco, the government implemented provisions of its Action Plan (2021-2024) for the implementation of the UN Security Council Resolution 1325 to increase support toward shelters dedicated to victims/survivors. Since the pandemic, the Ministry of Solidarity, Social Development, Equality and the Family established partnership agreements with 44 associations leading to the creation of 82 safe spaces for victims/survivors. The latter integrated the provision of various support services to 7,624 women, including accommodation for 821 women in 2020.
Source: Information provided by the government of Bahrain, Jordan and Morocco in response to the 2022 OECD survey on Strengthening Governance and Victim/survivor-centred Approaches to end VAW in MENA; (ESCWA, 2020[21]); (Nazra for Feminist Studies, 2016[22]); (UN Women, 2020[15]); (UNFPA, 2020[23]).
All surveyed countries reported having shelters in place to welcome victims/survivors, with large variability among them (Figure 2.2) – although the number of shelters alone is not indicative of the quality of the services provided, considering that shelters in each country may have very different hosting capacities and be operational for only limited periods of time or continuously. Despite efforts, in most MENA countries, the provision of shelters remains limited and hampered by victims/survivors’ lack of awareness of their existence, as well as the stigmatisation of women who leave abusers or families (ESCWA, 2020[21]).
The pandemic has prompted countries to integrate additional guidance on the management of shelter spaces into their national frameworks to respond to VAW (ESCWA, 2020[21]). In Morocco, a guide was developed to support women in multifunctional facilities and shelters, as well as to empower them to rebuild their lives and develop life projects. This guide for supporting women victims of violence includes a unified and comprehensive protocol for social workers and actors to approach and identify the appropriate care for victims of violence in shelters, by specifying all the services made available to them. Morocco has also launched a digital platform called “GISSR AMAN” allowing victims/survivors to benefit from different services and guiding them to local shelters. In Lebanon, the Ministry of Social Affairs co-operated with the National Commission for Lebanese Women, with the support of the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) to develop quality standards for shelters and their services on the basis of recommendations resulting from a study assessing existent practices, knowing that the said standards are to be launched shortly.
To meet victims/survivors’ protection needs, countries should ensure sufficient shelter spaces are available throughout the country, including in times of crisis, and are supported by co-ordinated transportation services. The United Nations Handbook for Legislation on Violence Against Women recommends one shelter space (i.e., bed) be available per 10,000 inhabitants (United Nations, 2012[24]). Moreover, MENA countries should invest in online and offline awareness-raising campaigns about the existence of shelters for women, notably targeting the most vulnerable and isolated populations (while protecting information about their location for security concerns). Campaigns should also tackle victim-blaming attitudes with regards to women who leave abusive partners, with or without children, to build trust, empower victims/survivors and remove social barriers to accessing shelters. As part of shelters’ integration into a wider range of support services, stakeholders and service providers should co-ordinate to ensure women’s economic empowerment, psychological support, and legal assistance.
Of course, time is a critical component of any recovery from violence and, in addition to emergency shelters in time of crisis, governments should increase their focus on offering medium- and longer-term housing solutions (OECD, 2023[25]). Emergency shelters, though critical to crisis response infrastructure, do not represent viable and sustainable housing solutions for women wanting to leave a violent relationship. Providing longer-term support in the form of transitional shelter and affordable housing contributes instead to reducing the risk of continued harm for women experiencing violence, helping them re-assert their safety and independence, and curbing the repeated use of limited and costly emergency services (OECD, 2023[25]).
2.1.3. Service culture
To design and deliver a victim/survivor-centred approach to eliminating VAW, it is essential that all service-providers interacting with victims/survivors (including medical personnel, social workers, NGO personnel, security and law enforcement officials) have the adequate knowledge, skills, and practices to carry out their work (OECD, 2021[1]).
Protocols
Surveyed MENA countries have invested considerable efforts to operationalise their national frameworks for the elimination of VAW through the development and diffusion of sectoral protocols. In Lebanon, for example, the Ministry of Social Affairs (MOSA) developed sector-specific standard operating procedures (SOPs) for the realisation of the 2014 Law 293 on the Protection of Women and Family Members from Domestic Violence. The latter provide guidance on procedures to prevent, detect and manage VAW risks. The MOSA has also developed SOPs dedicated to the treatment of VAW patients among medical personnel. Egypt has launched an “essential service packages to address VAW” which includes the development and diffusion of practical guides for a wide range of service providers interacting with victims/survivors, encompassing medical professionals, judiciary members, police officers, hotline operators, social workers, and NGO personnel.
Trainings
The diffusion of protocols should involve targeted sector-specific and cross-sectoral trainings. In addition to expanding and harmonising stakeholders’ understanding of relevant laws and procedures, training material should address service-providers’ understanding of victims/survivors’ experiences. This involves educating an exhaustive range of service providers who interact with potential victims/survivors on the varying psychological effects VAW may have on victims/survivors, and secondary victimisation risks (OECD, 2023[6]). Such service providers include social workers but also public and private health workers – including hospital receptionists and pharmacy personnel, police officers of all ranks, case managers (including public prosecutors and judges), school teachers, etc.
Surveyed MENA countries have invested significant efforts to train VAW service providers, including during the COVID-19 crisis. In Morocco, the Ministry of Solidarity, Social Insertion, and Family developed a National Training Programme targeting all personnel providing care to victims/survivors. The first session, held in 2020, focused on expanding and harmonising understandings of the normative and legal VAW-response framework and reached 100 service providers. Its second session, held in December 2021, reached 150 participants and went beyond legal and procedural domains to incorporate modules on non-violent communication, listening skills and non-violent communication, among other themes. Training has reportedly continued until 2023 in favour of students of the National Institute of Social Action.
Law-enforcement authorities play a critical role in victims/survivors’ complaint processes. But there remain documented patterns of dissuasive attitudes among them in MENA countries, which foster victims/survivors’ reluctance to report VAW to authorities (Banyan Global, International Center for Research on Women, Center of Arab Women for Training and Research, 2016[26]). It would thus be critical to train law-enforcement authorities to treat complaints in a manner that does not discourage victims/survivors from seeking protection or justice or minimise perpetrators’ responsibility.
2.1.4. Behavioural change among boys and men
VAW is overwhelmingly perpetrated by men and boys in all countries. This is mainly due to harmful social norms, and especially harmful notions and norms of masculinity. Jordan and Lebanon identified prevailing negative social norms as the major obstacles to eliminating VAW. For example, the social acceptance of intimate-partner violence is present across the MENA region, with 30% of women that consider it justified for a husband to hit or beat his wife under certain circumstances, a figure that raises up to 63% in Jordan (OECD Development Centre/OECD, 2023[9]). Lebanon reported that these barriers had raised further by the economic, political, security, and health crises plaguing the country.
A holistic strategy addressing VAW should focus on changing male attitudes as part of primary prevention and risk management efforts (OECD, 2021[1]) (OECD, 2023[6]). Such initiatives could include community, education-based programmes promoting women’s equality and rights, as well as non-violent masculinities (OECD, 2021[1]). As a central environment in children’s socialisation, schools are a particularly useful setting to deliver such programming which should target boys and youth but also teachers, parent teacher associations, and surrounding communities (Soliman, 2020[27]). While research is needed to assess the long-term impact of policies engaging men and boys on VAW, to date, evidence points to the value of such initiatives, especially where they involve community-wide sensitisation campaigns (OECD, 2020[4]). Data to better understand and track evolving masculinities and how they impact on women’s empowerment are also crucial and can help inform policies and programme design. The OECD’s Masculinities framework is a good starting point, as it provides a framework identifying a set of norms in the private and public sphere, that are detrimental to both men and women, and can lead to violence (OECD, 2021[28]). For example, the framework identified that rigid gender norms such as “a real man is the breadwinner” or “financially dominant” can threaten or put pressure on the well-being of men themselves – in case they lack income or in times of economic insecurity (OECD, 2021[28]). Evidence shows that in situations where such dominant gender norms are challenged or difficult to adhere to, VAW may increase.
In recent years, MENA countries have launched unprecedented initiatives to change boys and men’s attitudes and raise awareness regarding VAW both at the national and the regional level, as shown in Box 2.6. These are promising efforts that should be continued in the future as well.
Box 2.6. Initiatives to raise awareness on VAW and change boys and men’s attitudes in MENA countries
In Lebanon, the National Commission for Lebanese Women, in partnership with the Ministry of Education and Higher Education and UNICEF, is planning VAW-related awareness-raising initiatives targeting 10,000 adolescent girls, adolescent boys, parents, and school personnel administrations in public schools across the country. The initiative builds on and expands previous awareness-raising campaigns that had targeted 3,000 girls across 13 schools. In 2021, Morocco launched a national campaign to combat violence under the theme “Awareness-raising in schools on the fight against violence against women and girls” which aimed to sensitise youth to VAW in universities. The campaign served as a platform for the conduct of 470 interactive activities and reportedly involved 27,518 participants – including 40% of boys and men. The national campaign to combat violence in 2022 was launched under the theme of “Danger of digital violence towards women and girls”, while focusing on “A sure environment which protects women and girls from violence” in 2023. Tunisia reported organising annual and periodic awareness-raising campaigns involving young students and those active in civil society organisations, especially in the regions, to encourage them to be actors of positive change in their communities. In addition, in 2018 the Ministry of Women, Family, Childhood and Elderly launched a campaign to promote positive masculinities, based on the results of a study on men’s and boys’ perceptions of VAW conducted by the Centre for Research, Studies, Documentation and Information on Women (CREDIF).
Innovative awareness-raising campaigns targeting young and adult men’s attitudes at a regional scale have also emerged. Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, the Palestinian Authority and Tunisia have collaborated with UN Women for the launch of the “Because I am a Man” regional campaign. This advocacy and behavioural change campaign seeks to empower women by preventing VAW and promoting positive masculinities by focusing on fatherhood as a pillar in the engagement of men in ending discrimination against women and girls. The campaign involves on-ground activities, with outreach to 480,000 men, as well as online actions with over 17 million viewers on social media.
Source: Information provided by the governments of Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia in response to the 2022 OECD survey on Strengthening Governance and Victim/survivor-centred Approaches to end VAW in MENA; (UN Women Arab States, 2022[29]); (UN Women, 2020[3]).
2.2. Way forward
A series of actions could be considered by MENA countries to ensure victims/survivors’ realities and needs are at the centre of their VAW programmes in the future. As victim/survivor-centred VAW advocacy and policy making should be evidenced-based, MENA countries could consider strengthening their data-collection mechanisms by harmonising the collection of gender-disaggregated and intersectional data and engaging with rapid assessments and “big data” to collect information on VAW. To inform gender-sensitive policy choices and processes, it would be important for MENA countries to expand data collection sources, including through the engagement of non-governmental and private actors and the implementation of “no wrong door” approaches. A culture of information sharing across sectors should be further developed by making sure that all ministries provide information and relevant co-ordination actors systematise data collection using standard indicators and information registries. Moreover, to address under-reporting, it would be relevant to develop initiatives that reduce the stigma around VAW, raise awareness and address legal and policy barriers. Building on current efforts, MENA countries should continue integrating support services and ensuring service-providers have the adequate skills and resources to deliver VAW programmes. To identify gaps in institutional responses to VAW, the impact of trainings should also be monitored, and complaint and accountability mechanisms should be made available to victims/survivors. Finally, countries in the MENA region could keep engaging men and boys by promoting initiatives to raise awareness on VAW and change their attitudes towards gender equality.
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