Towards More Sustainable Investment Frameworks

Annex B. Investment and policy frameworks for renewable energy and green hydrogen production in the Southern Neighbourhood

The growing concerns over climate change, the need to improve trade balances as well as to find new and more sustainable sources of economic growth and job creation all call for an acceleration in the regional efforts to transition towards cleaner and more sustainable energy sources. The Southern Mediterranean region has long been recognised as a global powerhouse in the field of energy production, primarily due to rich reserves of fossil fuels in some countries, and more recently, due to the local abundance of renewable energy resources (Hawila, 2014[1]) and the potential of green hydrogen, produced from renewable power via the electrolysis process, as a versatile low-carbon energy vector.

Renewable energy investments already provide many benefits for economic development in the Southern Neighbourhood including enhanced energy security, reduced fuel import dependency, improved energy access, low-carbon industrial development and job creation (IRENA, 2013[2]). Renewable energy capacity has grown substantially in some of the countries in the region, in particular Jordan and Egypt (Figure A B.1). The total investment in clean energy in the five countries has been estimated at USD 3 billion in the last year where data is available (2021 for Jordan and Morocco, 2022 for Egypt, Tunisia and Algeria) (Climatescope, 2023[3]). As deployment grows, so does the impetus to develop domestic manufacturing capacity as well as research and development capacities. The importance of renewable energy and hydrogen in the region further increased since the full-scale invasion of Ukraine by Russia, which sent shockwaves through the global energy market. It comes as no surprise, therefore, that boosting renewable energy and green hydrogen capacity development features prominently in today’s trade relations between the European Union and the countries in the Southern Mediterranean.

The region has emerged as a promising place for green hydrogen production. The use of hydrogen is expected to grow significantly around the globe, playing a significant role in broader industrial decarbonisation, provision of flexible power generation and potentially nationwide transportation such as Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGVs). There is also significant interest in the role of liquid hydrogen and hydrogen carriers (ammonia or synthetic fuel) to decarbonise shipping and aviation, which could see large scale deployment post 2030 (OECD, 2022[4]).

Figure A B.1. Installed renewable energy capacity in selected countries of the Southern Mediterranean

Source: OECD elaboration from IRENA Renewable Energy Capacity Statistics 2023.

Scope, objectives and report structure

The aim of this Annex is to inform the potential for future Sustainable Investment Facilitation Agreements (SIFAs) negotiations with five selected Southern Neighbourhood partners – Morocco, Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia and Jordan, specifically with respect to possible investments in renewable energy and green hydrogen.

The EU Angola SIFA contains a series of provisions which encourage Parties to implement reforms to maximise the positive benefits of inward FDI to their sustainable development, and at the same time using FDI itself as a lever to advance their SDGs. With respect to investments specifically to achieve environmental goals, the agreement stresses commitments to internationally recognised standards and agreements, such as, for instance, the Paris Agreement. While the interpretation of the SIFA principles for investment at large is already addressed in the main Report (OECD, 2023[5]), we translate these high-level principles into detailed investment readiness factors specifically relevant to renewable energy and green hydrogen development in section 2 of this chapter ((i) market potential and state of development, ii) strength and predictability of regulatory framework and non-regulatory policies, iii) strength and predictability of financial support, iv) infrastructure readiness and other complementary resources). We subsequently analyse these readiness factors for each of the five countries using available information, outlined in the methodology section below. The information is summarised in country factsheets to provide a convenient overview.

The research on this Annex was conducted through desk research. Information was compiled directly from legal texts as well as from academic and grey literature, including reports from governmental agencies and their websites, industry organisations, as well as reports and datasets from key international organisations in the energy space such as the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the World Bank (WB) and others. The growing work of the OECD on green hydrogen under the Clean Energy Finance and Investment Mobilisation (CEFIM) programme has been instrumental in gathering information on this emerging industry. Given the need for information to be recent, press releases and specialised press articles were likewise an essential source of information. Not all information is available in the public domain so targeted consultations with government experts might be needed to comprehensively cover all the criteria.

This chapter excludes assessment of the countries’ general financial stability and ability to attract domestic and foreign investment and we therefore leave out factors which play a role in shaping the general investment environment in the surveyed countries, such as political stability or the rule of law. It also excludes addressing any of the general regulatory aspects explicitly mentioned in the EU Angola SIFA, such as restrictions and conditions applying to investment, business registration, acquisition and registering of property, construction permits, resolving insolvency and others or any general-purpose infrastructure that facilitates investment at large such as roads or railways.

Methodology for assessing the state of readiness for investment in renewable energy and green hydrogen in the Southern Mediterranean

Further development of renewable energy and green hydrogen capacity in the Southern Mediterranean is intertwined, since green hydrogen production relies on low-cost supply of renewable power. In order to accelerate the deployment of both, a supportive regulatory environment, strong and predictable financial incentives and strategic investments into relevant infrastructure will be essential. The development of green hydrogen capacity in particular remains a risky undertaking so creating an enabling environment is a specific challenge. New OECD analysis suggests that achieving the economic viability of green hydrogen requires, inter alia, new financing instruments (OECD, 2022[4]).

In this section, we identify the key factors that contribute to a country’s reading readiness for renewable energy and green hydrogen investments. We describe each factor and which elements it includes below. The approach to the assessment is distinct from IRENA Renewables Readiness Assessment (RRA) (IRENA, 2013[2]), which mostly focuses on ratcheting up policy support renewable energy at a high level, the World Bank Regulatory Indicators for Sustainable Energy (RISE) (World Bank, 2015[6]), which focus mainly on renewable energy, energy efficiency and specifically the 7^th Sustainable Development Goal as well as the UNFCCC Climate Investment Readiness Index (CIRI) (UNFCCC, n.d.[7]), which has a broader thematic and geographical scope. We nevertheless adapt relevant elements from these frameworks where appropriate.

Market potential and state of development

The availability of domestic natural resources typically galvanises political interests in their development. Likewise, awareness among investors is largely driven by the available domestic resources. We therefore examine the countries’ solar and wind energy potential and where appropriate, also other renewables. The current state of development of renewable energy (in terms of installed capacity) and green hydrogen deployment (in terms of the number of projects in the pipeline) is key as an indicator of political will, capacity to implement relevant projects and as an indicator of accumulated know-how.

Given the fact that hydrogen is an energy vector, rather than a resource in its own right and the term ‘green hydrogen’ refers to hydrogen sourced from renewable energy sources, domestic renewable energy resources are also a relevant market potential determinant for green hydrogen development. The existing installed renewable energy capacity is additionally relevant as higher penetration rates are also generally associated with a stronger imperative to manage the variable electricity output and reduce eventual curtailment, which creates further incentives for green hydrogen capacity development as a means of mitigating these issues. We highlight the pipeline of green hydrogen projects, especially where these are in advanced stages of preparation and have achieved a financial close.

We also analyse the country's dependence on fossil fuel imports it typically provides a strong additional incentive for pursuing investments in renewable energy and green hydrogen and additionally provide a brief overview of the state of the domestic renewable energy manufacturing sector, with a particular focus on the production assets.

Strength and predictability of regulatory framework and non-regulatory policies

We provide a comprehensive overview countries’ policy environment related to renewable energy and green hydrogen. We consider both regulatory and non-regulatory polices such as renewable energy and green hydrogen plans, strategies, targets and any other legislation directly relevant to renewable energy and green hydrogen development as well as the broader institutional framework. The ambition of the regulation, as well as clarity and predictability are taken into account. Since predictability is something that is difficult to assess ex-ante, we proxy this indirectly by considering commitments to international climate negotiations, consideration of whether targets are binding or not and sufficiently long-term. Any past retro-active revisions of legislation detrimental to renewable energy and green hydrogen development would also be captured in this section. In the case of green hydrogen, national strategies and roadmaps are mostly, but not always, a key source of information. Wherever the intention to export green hydrogen or its derivatives are mentioned, this is stated.

Strength and predictability of financial support

We evaluate common types of financial incentives and support mechanisms available to investors pursuing renewable energy and green hydrogen projects. projects. We consider both technology push and market pull instruments that directly and indirectly alter or de-risk the payoff associated with renewable energy and green hydrogen projects during their life cycle. This means that we consider financial incentives and instruments such as research and innovation incentives, targeted tax incentives, subsidies, feed-in tariffs, availability of power purchase agreements (PPA), grants, access to project financing, the degree of involvement of foreign investors and availability of public-private partnerships as well as access to e.g. green bonds (OECD, forthcoming[8]; OECD, forthcoming[9]). We consider also financial incentives in downstream sectors, that are intended to increase the demand for renewable energy or green hydrogen respectively. Direct engagement with companies involved in green hydrogen project development emphasised the key role of Development Finance Institutions (DFIs), Multilateral developments banks (MDBs) (OECD, 2022[4]), so this is another element that is assessed.

Infrastructure readiness and availability of complementary resources

A country's general infrastructure affects its ability to implement large scale projects, including those in renewable energy and green hydrogen. In this section, we however, only address the availability and quality of infrastructure specifically necessary for renewable energy and green hydrogen projects. For a country to be able to add additional renewable energy capacity, it is vital to have a transmission grid that is capable of supporting the intermittent nature of renewable energy and transport renewable power from where it is produced to where it is needed. We pay specific attention to cross-border grid interconnection capacity as these enable trade, helping to bring the aggregate costs down and to facilitate grid balancing. With respect to infrastructure needed for green hydrogen development, it is essential that renewable energy and hydrogen production capacity and transport infrastructure are co-located to minimise costs (OECD, 2022[4]). We therefore focus on plans for such co-location as well as port infrastructure (IEA, 2019[10]). The availability of complementary resources, mainly water, is also included.

Summary Factsheet: Algeria

Table A B.1. Market potential and state of development in Algeria

Renewables
	Availability of renewable energy resources	Abundant solar and wind resources (IRENA, 2022[11])
	Contribution of renewables incl. hydro to total primary energy supply	0.12% (2021 or latest) (OECD, 2023[12])
	Current renewable energy capacity installed (wind and solar)	599 MW total; solar 460 MW (out of which CSP 25 MW); wind 10 MW (2022) (IRENA, 2023[13])
	Domestic renewable energy industry	The Algerian solar power supply chain grew significantly in last decade. Algerian telecoms and renewables company Milltech, for instance, built a 100 MW annual capacity solar module factory in the industrial zone of Boukerana in Chelghoum El Aid, in the Mila province in the north east of the country. There is no known manufacturing capacity in wind power (PV Magazine International, 2020[14]).
Green hydrogen
	Existing green hydrogen capacity/project pipeline (including derivatives)	2 in planning (ESMAP, 2023[15])
	Existing blue hydrogen capacity/project pipeline (including derivatives)	None
Cross-cutting
	Fossil fuel import dependency	Major hydrocarbon producer and exporter. According to latest World Bank figures net energy exports are at 177.1% of energy use (World Bank, 2023[16]).

Table A B.2. Strength and predictability of regulatory framework and non-regulatory policies in Algeria

Renewables
	Renewable energy strategies and targets	Increase share of renewables in electricity generation to 27% by 2030 and install 15 GW of renewable power generation capacity by 2035 (International Trade Administration, 2023[17])
	Establishment of dedicated agency/body to support development	Yes, the National Observatory for the Promotion of Renewable Energies
	Other relevant regulation (e.g. local content rules, investment at large)	Algeria’s Law on Renewable Energy Promotion establishes a general structure for the deployment of a renewable energy policy and sets production targets. There is no legal framework for local content specifically for renewables (IEA, 2023[18]).
Green hydrogen
	Green hydrogen strategies/roadmaps	Hydrogen strategy exists, however, lacks the commitment to produce hydrogen using renewable energy only (Hydrogen Insight, 2023[19]).
	Green hydrogen cost target, if any	No explicit cost reduction target.
	Green hydrogen capacity target, if any	The strategy specifically targets the production and export of 30 to 40 TWh of (gaseous and liquid) hydrogen and derivatives by 2040.
	Establishment of dedicated agency/body to support development	Yes
	Any other relevant regulation (e.g. certification/standards)	The removal of the 51/49% rule, which required majority shareholding by Algerian national residents, by the Supplemental Finance Law for 2020, as amended ("LFC 2020"), brought new opportunities for foreign investors. While certain activities in strategic sectors continue to be subject to the rule, renewable energy is not listed (IEA, 2023[18]).
	Green hydrogen export provisions	Algeria aims to supply Europe with 10% of its renewable hydrogen needs by 2040 (Enerdata, 2023[20]).
Cross-cutting
	UNFCCC participation and greenhouse gas reduction/renewable energy/green hydrogen commitments in Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)	NDC includes a target to reduce greenhouse gases emissions by 7%-22% to 2030; 27% of electricity generated from renewable sources of energy by 2030.

Table A B.3. Strength and predictability of financial support in Algeria

Renewables
	Feed-in tariffs	Yes, for solar PV and wind, not for CSP currently (IEA, 2023[18])
	Other operational support (e.g. contract for difference/feed-in-premium policies/long-term power purchase agreements)	Renewable power projects subject to a specific regime based on a 20-year power purchase agreement.
	Competitive auctions	Yes, in a recent (July 2023) round A total of 90 bids were submitted by Algerian and foreign companies. Among the successful proposals, 50 came from foreign developers, 18 were filed by local companies and nine were made by consortiums of both local and international companies (RenewablesNow, 2023[21]).
	Tax incentives and other financial support	None
Green hydrogen
	Financial support (including co-investment commitments) available or planned specifically for green hydrogen installation/production	None
Cross-cutting
	Financial investment support for clean investments in general (e.g. green bonds etc.)	No specific support
	Carbon markets	No domestic carbon pricing mechanisms or participation in international carbon markets.
	History/robust pipeline of international co-investment in renewable energy or green hydrogen projects	Yes (International Trade Administration, 2023[17])

Table A B.4. Infrastructure readiness and availability of complementary resources in Algeria

Renewables
	Grid sufficiency for additional renewable energy capacity	Algeria’s transmission and distribution grid is well developed in the north of the country, with interconnections to Morocco and Tunisia. In the South, however, the grid is isolated and susceptible to technical challenges (IRENA, 2020[22]).
	Grid access and transmission rules for renewable energy projects	Law 02-01 grants independent power producers the right to access the grid. According to the Executive Decree 06-429 the TSO is responsible for building the connection infrastructure up to 50 km. For the domestic market, transmission fees are paid by consumers and are determined by the CREG (IEA, 2023[18]).
	History of curtailing renewable energy production due to insufficient grid capacity	No evidence found.
Green hydrogen
	Grid planning reflecting possible hydrogen production sites	No evidence found.
	Port/other maritime infrastructure	There are two existing Algerian LNG export terminals - Arzew/Bethouia (20.8 mln tonne per year) and Skikda (7.7mln tonnes per year).
	Availability of water	Water stress levels are high to extremely high in coastal areas in the North of the country.
	Any other relevant infrastructure	Algeria’s existing hydrocarbons infrastructure offers an interesting basis to build up its hydrogen potential (PtX hub, 2023[23]). Infrastructure plans include an expansion of an existing gas pipeline corridor that will go through Tunisia and Italy (Pipeline journal, 2023[24]). The energy ministries of Italy, Germany, and Austria signed a letter of support for the development of a hydrogen-ready pipeline between North Africa and Europe involving Italy’s gas grid operator (IMF, 2023[25]; IRENA, 2022[26])

Summary Factsheet: Egypt

Table A B.5. Market potential and state of development in Egypt

Renewables
	Availability of renewable energy resources	Abundant solar and wind energy resources (IRENA, 2022[27]).
	Contribution of renewables incl. hydro to total primary energy supply	6.2% (2021 or latest) (OECD, 2023[12])
	Current renewable energy capacity installed (wind and solar)	6322 MW total; solar 1724 MW; wind 1643 MW (2022) (IRENA, 2023[13])
	Domestic renewable energy industry	Egypt has a comparative advantage in different segments of the renewables value chain, particularly in the downstream segments of project development, operation and maintenance. Several local players, including cable manufacturers and EPC contractors, have been active within the renewable energy market and hold a considerable market share for all renewable energy technologies (solar PV, CSP and wind). (Renewable Energy Agency, n.d.[28])Electrical components (cables, transformers) and turbine towers for the wind energy industry have been mostly produced by local companies. Egypt has little local capacity in the solar sector. It has a number of small companies that are involved in supplying solar water heaters. Aside from this small sector, Egypt does not have much capacity to locally produce the components of solar power plants (African Development Bank, 2012[29]).
Green hydrogen
	Existing green hydrogen capacity/project pipeline (including derivatives)	24 projects (ESMAP, 2023[15])
	Existing blue hydrogen capacity/project pipeline (including derivatives)	At least 1 project
Cross-cutting
	Fossil fuel import dependency	Substantial fossil fuel imports but also planning expansion of domestic production. (net energy exports are at 7.4% of energy use) (World Bank, 2023[16]).

Table A B.6. Strength and predictability of regulatory framework and non-regulatory policies in Egypt

Renewables
	Renewable energy strategies and targets	The 2035 Integrated Sustainable Energy Strategy is currently being revised and waiting the approval of the supreme council for energy to reflect 33% of energy generated from renewable energy by 2025, 48% by 2030, 55% by 2035, and 61% by 2040 (IEA, 2023[18]).
	Establishment of dedicated agency/body to support development	Yes, New and Renewable Energy Authority (NREA).
	Other relevant regulation (e.g. local content rules, investment at large)	30% local content for wind farms in 2018 and was expected to increase the share to 70% by the end of 2020 (IRENA, 2018[66]). No known localisation provisions with respect to workforce in particular.
Green hydrogen
	Green hydrogen strategies/roadmaps	Yes (being developed with the help of EBRD) (International Renewable Energy Agency, 2023[30])
	Green hydrogen cost target, if any	Yes, the country is aiming to produce green hydrogen at the lowest cost worldwide by 2050 at $1.7 per kg (ESI Africa, 2023[31]).
	Green hydrogen capacity target, if any	Aiming to produce up to 8% of world hydrogen supply.
	Establishment of dedicated agency/body to support development	Yes, National Council for Green Hydrogen and its Derivatives is established.
	Any other relevant regulation (e.g. certification/standards)	No evidence found of a certification scheme being implemented or planned. Package of tax and non-tax incentives approved by Cabinet and currently before the Parliament (December 2023); 20% local content to qualify for incentives.
	Green hydrogen export provisions	Egypt aims to be one of the largest exporters of clean hydrogen in the region (Green Hydrogen Organisation, n.d.[32]).
Cross-cutting
	UNFCCC participation and greenhouse gas reduction/renewable energy/green hydrogen commitments in Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)	In a recent update to this first NDC, Egypt brought forward its renewable energy target by five years. The country will now target 42% of energy demand from renewables by 2030, rather than 2035. It also committed to reduce emissions by 33% in the electricity sector, 65% in the oil and gas sector and 7% in the transportation sector by 2030 compared to business-as-usual, conditional on external support (UNFCCC, 2023[33]).

Table A B.7. Strength and predictability of financial support in Egypt

Renewables
	Feed-in tariffs	Yes, in the past feed-in tariff support system for solar PV and wind projects with capacity less than 50 MW (IEA, 2023[18]) was established. No new projects will be implemented based on FIT.
	Other operational support (e.g. contract for difference/feed-in-premium policies/long-term power purchase agreements)	The power purchase agreements for feed-in tariffs for solar installations will last 20 years, for wind projects 25 years. The system is open only for solar PV and wind technologies (IEA, 2023[18]).
	Competitive auctions	Yes (International Renewable Energy Agency, 2023[30])
	Tax incentives and other financial support	A reduction of 2% in customs on new and renewable energy equipment. Recipients of the feed-in tariff support are also eligible to profit from the renewable tax incentive provided by the government of Egypt (IEA, 2023[18]).
Green hydrogen
	Financial support (including co-investment commitments) available or planned specifically for green hydrogen installation/production	Extensive package of dedicated incentives recently approved. A new incentive package of pending parliament approval, which includes a wheeling charge methodology modification with potential room for giving discount to green hydrogen developers (IEA, 2023[18]).
Cross-cutting
	Financial investment support for clean investments in general (e.g. green bonds etc.)	In 2020, Egypt became the first country in the Middle East and North Africa to issue a sovereign green bond (World Bank, 2022[34]).
	Carbon markets	A recent decree provides for the establishment of a voluntary carbon market platform within the Egyptian Stock Exchange (EGX) for the trading of carbon emissions reduction certificates (CERs). The CERs are tradeable financial instruments for greenhouse gases and are to be issued in favour of entities establishing projects reducing GHG emissions after obtaining the approval of the relevant authorities which are not currently specified (Baker Mackenzie, 2023[35]).
	History/robust pipeline of international co-investment in renewable energy or green hydrogen projects	Yes

Table A B.8. Infrastructure readiness and availability of complementary resources in Egypt

Renewables
	Grid sufficiency for additional renewable energy capacity	A substantial grid expansion and reinforcement is underway to accommodate the rapidly growing renewable capacity, including cross-border interconnectors.
	Grid access and transmission rules for renewable energy projects	Independent power producers can enter bilateral electricity purchase contracts with eligible consumers and sell them produced electricity directly. The Egyptian Electricity Transmission Company (EETC) must allow for conclusion of such contract and make grid network available. In this case, EETC is allowed to charge and collect greed access fee for grid usage (IEA, 2023[18]).
	History of curtailing renewable energy production due to insufficient grid capacity	No evidence found.
Green hydrogen
	Grid planning reflecting possible hydrogen production sites	Yes, at the end of 2022, the government granted so-called “golden licences”, a combination of land leasing, construction permitting and operating rights to two green hydrogen projects in the industrial zone of Ain Sokhna, a port town on the Red Sea, 55km south of the Suez Canal (Hydrogen Insight, 2022[36]).
	Port/other maritime infrastructure	The importance of sea ports is recognised in the green hydrogen strategy. . Private companies (SCATEC, Maersk) are investing in the Suez Canal Zone ports to produce green fuel from green hydrogen.
	Availability of water	The hydrogen strategy noted that barriers to developing a hydrogen economy included freshwater scarcity. The government plans to build 47 seawater desalination plants over 30 years. The first 21 plants are expected to produce around 3.3 mn cbm/d of water.
	Any other relevant infrastructure	The Suez Canal is a transit route for oil and liquefied natural gas (LNG) shipments traveling northbound from the Persian Gulf to Europe and to North America.

Summary Factsheet: Jordan

Table A B.9. Market potential and state of development in Jordan

Renewables
	Availability of renewable energy resources	Abundant wind and solar resources (IRENA, 2022[37])
	Contribution of renewables incl. hydro to total primary energy supply	8% (2021 or latest) (OECD, 2023[12])
	Current renewable energy capacity installed (wind and solar)	2,555 MW total; solar 1,914 MW; wind 614 MW (2022) (IRENA, 2023[13])
	Domestic renewable energy industry	Jordan has been actively pursuing domestic solar industry development. Numerous domestic businesses specialise in solar panels, inverters, and other renewable energy technologies. Firms like Philadelphia Solar have established substantial operations. Petra Solar Jordan, another key player, specialises in the design and manufacture of innovative solar panels. There is a plan to invest JOD 100 mn (c. USD 140.9 mn) to build a solar cell production plant in Amman (Enterprise Climate, 2023[38]).
Green hydrogen
	Existing green hydrogen capacity/project pipeline (including derivatives)	Four MoUs signed in 2023 between the Ministry of Energy and private developers and at least 10 more in the pipeline (Jordan Times, 2023[39])
	Existing blue hydrogen capacity/project pipeline (including derivatives)	0 projects
Cross-cutting
	Fossil fuel import dependency	High dependency on imported hydrocarbons putting a strain on national budget. According to latest World Bank figures net energy imports are at 96.8% of energy use (World Bank, 2023).

Table A B.10. Strength and predictability of regulatory framework and non-regulatory policies in Jordan

Renewables
	Renewable energy strategies and targets	Jordan plans to generate 50% of electricity from renewables by 2030 (Reuters, 2021[40]).
	Establishment of dedicated agency/body to support development	There is no dedicated renewable energy agency that oversees the development of the renewable energy sector, this competency falls under the Energy and Minerals Regulatory Commission (EMRC) and the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR).
	Other relevant regulation (e.g. local content rules, investment at large)	A 35% requirement local content requirement was proposed in Jordan’s last renewable energy tender, with tariff prices reflecting the degree of localisation. All equipment used in renewable energy projects is exempt from import and sales tax (Climatescope, 2021[41]).
Green hydrogen
	Green hydrogen strategies/roadmaps	Green Hydrogen roadmap has been devised, to be followed by a more comprehensive strategy (RenwablesNow, 2023[42])
	Green hydrogen cost target, if any	NA
	Green hydrogen capacity target, if any	NA
	Establishment of dedicated agency/body to support development	National Green Hydrogen Committee was established in 2023
	Any other relevant regulation (e.g. certification/standards)	The Jordanian Energy Ministry is currently working on a strategy to set technical and legal standards to produce green hydrogen from solar and wind (PtX Hub, 2023[43]).
	Green hydrogen export provisions	The intention to produce green hydrogen for export has been stated by public officials (The Jordan Times, 2023[44]).
Cross-cutting
	UNFCCC participation and greenhouse gas reduction/renewable energy/green hydrogen commitments in Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)	Updated NDC goal increased greenhouse gas reduction commitment 14% to 31% by 2030 compared to BAU. The NDC emphasizes the use of renewable energy and energy efficiency measures to support GHG mitigation efforts, with a target of increasing the share of renewable energy in electricity generation by 35% in 2030 compared to Business As Usual (BAU) scenario (UNFCCC, 2021[45])

Table A B.11. Strength and predictability of financial support in Jordan

Renewables
	Feed-in tariffs	Yes, for solar energy. The prices are described as a "ceiling tariff", with PV set at USD 0.163/kWh and CSP at USD 0.183/kWh. The tariffs do not include different tranches for size (IEA, 2023[18]).
	Other operational support (e.g. contract for difference/feed-in-premium policies/long-term power purchase agreements)	Yes, long-term power purchase agreements are available to private power producers.
	Competitive auctions	Yes
	Tax incentives and other financial support	Customs duties, sales tax exemption for systems, equipment and devices related to renewable energy (Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, 2023[46]).
Green hydrogen
	Financial support (including co-investment commitments) available or planned specifically for green hydrogen installation/production	None
Cross-cutting
	Financial investment support for clean investments in general (e.g. green bonds etc.)	The Jordan Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency Fund (JREEEF) provides renewable energy subsidies to privately owned and operated facilities, interest rate subsidies on commercial loans, a Public Equity Fund to support the deployment of private investment in the sector, a renewable energy guarantee facility to ease credit access for energy efficiency and renewable energy project developers and research and technical cooperation grants for targeted programmes and feasibility studies (IEA, 2023[18]).
	Carbon markets	Jordan was the first developing country to build Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) and GHG Registry systems to international standards that are the key building blocks for future emissions trading. To prepare for its MRV system, Jordan enacted a climate change bylaw in 2019 setting the institutional and regulatory framework on climate change across the government (World Bank, 2023[47]).
	History/robust pipeline of international co-investment in renewable energy or green hydrogen projects	Yes

Table A B.12. Infrastructure readiness and availability of complementary resources in Jordan

Renewables
	Grid sufficiency for additional renewable energy capacity	The lack of capacity to handle higher shares of renewables in the transmission and distribution infrastructure is a key hurdle for further growth, however, Jordan is already starting to address the technical challenges by pushing ahead with upgrades to the grid and creation of a new grid installation called Green Corridor (IRENA, 2021[48]).
	Grid access and transmission rules for renewable energy projects	NEPCO (National Electricity Power Company) is expected to purchase the entire amount of electricity produced by private producers and will provide grid access to each individual renewable energy project (IEA, 2023[18]).
	History of curtailing renewable energy production due to insufficient grid capacity	Yes, the country introduced an indefinite suspension of new projects over 1 megawatt (MW) since January 2019, which has introduced uncertainty to the sector. This suspension only ended in 2022.
Green hydrogen
	Grid planning reflecting possible hydrogen production sites	No evidence of such planning found.
	Port/other maritime infrastructure	Aqaba port’s readiness and needed infrastructure for the export of hydrogen is currently being studied.
	Availability of water	Severe water scarcity, could be potentially partly mitigated through desalination (UNICEF, 2022[49]).
	Any other relevant infrastructure	The possibility of adapting current gas network is being studied.

Summary Factsheet: Morocco

Table A B.13. Market potential and state of development in Morocco

Renewables
	Availability of renewable energy resources	Abundant solar and wind energy resources (IRENA, 2022[26])
	Contribution of renewables incl. hydro to total primary energy supply	9.4% (2021 or latest) (OECD, 2023[12])
	Current renewable energy capacity installed (wind and solar)	3,727 MW total; solar 858 MW (out of which CSP 540 MW); wind 1,556 MW (2022) (IRENA, 2023[13])
	Domestic renewable energy industry	Morocco has witnessed a considerable growth of its solar energy industry in particular and there are a number of domestic players. Almaden, a photovoltaic module factory covering an area of 7,000 m², is the first of its kind in Morocco and Africa. The site is dedicated to the production of monocrystalline, polycrystalline and dual-glass panels and has an annual production capacity of 250 MW (Dome Solar, n.d.[50]). Gamesa Siemens built a wind turbine blade factory in Tangier, northern Morocco, however production there closed down in early 2023 due to supply chain issues (Reuters, n.d.[51])
Green hydrogen
	Existing green hydrogen capacity/project pipeline (including derivatives)	9 projects (ESMAP, 2023[15])
	Existing blue hydrogen capacity/project pipeline (including derivatives)	None
Cross-cutting
	Fossil fuel import dependency	High dependency on imported hydrocarbons. According to latest World Bank figures net energy imports are at 90.7% of energy use (World Bank, 2023[16]).

Table A B.14. Strength and predictability of regulatory framework and non-regulatory policies in Morocco

Renewables
	Renewable energy strategies and targets	Target of 42% of total generation capacity by 2020, and 52% by 2030. Target to rely 100% on renewables by 2050 (IEA, 2023[18]).
	Establishment of dedicated agency/body to support development	Yes, the Moroccan Agency for Sustainable Energy (MASEN)
	Other relevant regulation (e.g. local content rules, investment at large)	Yes, MASEN set a 30% local content targetthat gave preferences to local labour, materials and service used for the solar power industry, with the aim of contributing to regional economic development and building local buy-in (World Resources Institute, n.d.[52]). This target is voluntary and therefore not a pre-condition for a license or support (World Bank, 2018[53]).
Green hydrogen
	Green hydrogen strategies/roadmaps	Yes
	Green hydrogen cost target, if any	Cost reduction as a priority but no concrete target
	Green hydrogen capacity target, if any	Roadmap includes reference and optimistic scenarios for demand exports but does not mention capacity targets
	Establishment of dedicated agency/body to support development	Yes, the Hydrogen National Commission
	Any other relevant regulation (e.g. certification/standards)	Mentioned in strategy but no concrete proposal.
	Green hydrogen export provisions	In the short term (2020-2030) the focus is on both exports, mainly to Europe, and the use of green hydrogen as an industry feedstock.  In the medium term (2030-2040), Morocco will focus on using green hydrogen as an energy storage vector to ensure grid stability, but also in public and heavy trucks transports.  In the long term (2040-2050), the strategy foresees higher levels of exports and use in industrial heat, railway, maritime, and aviation transport, as well as passenger vehicles (International Trade Administration, 2024[54]).
Cross-cutting
	UNFCCC participation and greenhouse gas reduction/renewable energy/green hydrogen commitments in Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)	Updated NDC commits the country to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 18.3% by 2030 compared with the business-as-usual (BAU) scenario. With international support this could reach 45.5% by 2030 compared with the BAU scenario (UNFCCC, 2023[33])

Table A B.15. Strength and predictability of financial support in Morocco

Renewables
	Feed-in tariffs	No feed-in tariffs (IEA, 2023[18])
	Other operational support (e.g. contract for difference/feed-in-premium policies/long-term power purchase agreements)	Private power purchase agreements (PPAs) are available for a period of up to 25 years (IEA, 2023[18]).
	Competitive auctions	Yes, since 2010, the Moroccan government is tendering new solar and wind capacity through auctions in order to meet country’s renewable energy targets (International Renewable Energy Agency, 2023[30]).
	Tax incentives and other financial support	Incentives include tax exemptions, reduced customs duties on renewable energy equipment.
Green hydrogen
	Financial support (including co-investment commitments) available or planned specifically for green hydrogen installation/production	None, except a targeted international investment commitment. Norad, the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation to co-invest in green hydrogen projects in Morocco.
Cross-cutting
	Financial investment support for clean investments in general (e.g. green bonds etc.)	Moroccan Agency for Solar Energy issued the country’s first ever Green Bond. These bonds with total value were issued through private placement following the authorization of the Moroccan Authority of Capital Market (AMMC).
	Carbon markets	No, but a carbon tax is under consideration (World Bank, 2023[55]).
	History/robust pipeline of international co-investment in renewable energy or green hydrogen projects	Yes

Table A B.16. Infrastructure readiness and availability of complementary resources in Morocco

Renewables
	Grid sufficiency for additional renewable energy capacity	Morocco prioritises improving its infrastructure to accommodate renewable energy projects, including through interconnections with neighbouring countries.
	Grid access and transmission rules for renewable energy projects	Law 13-09 provides for a right of access to the national low-voltage, medium-voltage, high-voltage and extra-high-voltage electricity grid for electricity produced by independent operators from renewable energy sources, within the limits of available technical capacity (IEA, 2023[18]).
	History of curtailing renewable energy production due to insufficient grid capacity	The issue was addressed through Law No. 40-19, which stipulates the maximum amount of installed capacity from renewable energy sources that the national electricity grid can accommodate without facing management constraints.
Green hydrogen
	Grid planning reflecting possible hydrogen production sites	No evidence found of such planning.
	Port/other maritime infrastructure	The Port of Tangier has joined forces with the German port of Hamburg through a letter of intent signed in 2020 covering, among other things, the export of green hydrogen.
	Availability of water	High water stress coincides with good solar and wind resources, which may be a barrier to green hydrogen development unless there is sufficient desalination capacity.
	Any other relevant infrastructure	NA

Summary Factsheet: Tunisia

Table A B.17. Market potential and state of development in Tunisia

Renewables
	Availability of renewable energy resources	Abundant solar, wind and biomass resources (IRENA, 2022[56])
	Contribution of renewables incl. hydro to total primary energy supply	11.5% (2021 or latest) (OECD, 2023[12])
	Current renewable energy capacity installed (wind and solar)	508 MW total; solar 197 MW, wind 245 MW (2022) (IRENA, 2023[13])
	Domestic renewable energy industry	There are a substantial number of solar equipment suppliers operating within Tunisia’s solar market. Most of these entities can only manufacture and distribute equipment for small and medium solar projects and for large-scale solar projects, equipment tends to be imported. One domestic producer, Ifri-Sol has of module production capacity of 750MW and plans to increase it to 1 GW by the end of this year. Its panel factory is located in Enfidha, in north-eastern Tunisia (Solarfeeds.com, n.d.[57]).
Green hydrogen
	Existing green hydrogen capacity/project pipeline (including derivatives)	2 projects in planning (ESMAP, 2023[15])
	Existing blue hydrogen capacity/project pipeline (including derivatives)	None
Cross-cutting
	Fossil fuel import dependency	Decline in domestic hydrocarbon production. According to latest World Bank figures net energy imports are at 36.2% of energy use (World Bank, 2023[16]).

Table A B.18. Strength and predictability of regulatory framework and non-regulatory policies in Tunisia

Renewables
	Renewable energy strategies and targets	Tunisia raised its renewable energy target from 30% to 35% by 2030 compared to the trend scenario in 2022. Specific targets of installing 1,000 MW of wind power capacity and 3.8 GW of solar by 2030 are also in place.
	Establishment of dedicated agency/body to support development	Yes, National Agency for Energy Management
	Other relevant regulation (e.g. local content rules, investment at large)	In May 2019, Parliament passed a bill to improve the business climate, permitting businesses to create separate special-purpose vehicles entirely dedicated to power generation. This policy change allows companies to produce power for their own consumption at more competitive prices.
Green hydrogen
	Green hydrogen strategies/roadmaps	No hydrogen strategy yet but government working on establishing a new legal framework to promote the production and use of green hydrogen and its derivatives in the local market.
	Green hydrogen cost target, if any	NA
	Green hydrogen capacity target, if any	NA
	Establishment of dedicated agency/body to support development	NA
	Any other relevant regulation (e.g. certification/standards)	NA
	Green hydrogen export provisions	Tunisia envisions exporting between 5.5 and 6 million tonnes of green hydrogen annually to Europe by 2050 (Hydrogen Europe, 2023[58]).
Cross-cutting
	UNFCCC participation and greenhouse gas reduction/renewable energy/green hydrogen commitments in Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)	In 2021, Tunisia pledged in its updated NDC to reduce its carbon intensity (emissions relative to gross domestic product) by 45% by 2030 compared to its 2010 level.

Table A B.19. Strength and predictability of financial support in Tunisia

Renewables
	Feed-in tariffs	The value of the feed-in tariff is decided by the Ministry of Energy (IEA, 2023[18]).
	Other operational support (e.g. contract for difference/feed-in-premium policies/long-term power purchase agreements)	Selected developers sign power purchase agreements with state energy company Societe Tunisienne de l‘Electricite et du Gaz (STEG) for a concession period of 20 years under a build-own-operate (BOO) model (IEA, 2023[18])
	Competitive auctions	Yes (International Renewable Energy Agency, 2023[30])
	Tax incentives and other financial support	Reduced VAT on renewable energy components and customs tariffs if there is no local equivalent available. There is also a reduced corporate income tax, depending on the firm’s income and location of the project (IEA, 2023[18]).
Green hydrogen
	Financial support (including co-investment commitments) available or planned specifically for green hydrogen installation/production	In December 2020, the Tunisian Ministry for Energy Mines and Renewable Energy signed a EUR 31 million Memorandum of Understanding with the German Federal Minister for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) for developing its green hydrogen market (Energycentral, 2023[59]).
Cross-cutting
	Financial investment support for clean investments in general (e.g. green bonds etc.)	Fonds de Transition Energétique offers grants, equity financing and improved loan terms to firms willing to invest in renewable energy (mostly for own consumption projects)
	Carbon markets	Tunisia plans to establish conditions that will allow it to initiate a carbon pricing programme to support its energy transition policy and the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions (ANME, 2023[60]).
	History/robust pipeline of international co-investment in renewable energy or green hydrogen projects	Yes

Table A B.20. Infrastructure readiness and availability of complementary resources in Tunisia

Renewables
	Grid sufficiency for additional renewable energy capacity	Tunisia’s national grid is connected to those of Algeria and Libya, but various other projects to expand electricity transmission and distribution networks across North Africa are in the planning stage.
	Grid access and transmission rules for renewable energy projects	Before connecting its power station to the Tunisian national grid, a producer must first obtain approval from STEG (IEA, 2023[18]).
	History of curtailing renewable energy production due to insufficient grid capacity	No evidence found.
Green hydrogen
	Grid planning reflecting possible hydrogen production sites	No evidence found.
	Port/other maritime infrastructure	Plans to upgrade port/maritime infrastructure to facilitate green hydrogen trade are so far undefined.
	Availability of water	Water, a main source for the production of green hydrogen, is in short supply in Tunisia, however, the State intends to set up desalination plants in the south and the midland.
	Any other relevant infrastructure	The already-available Transmed gas pipeline that connects Algeria to Italy through Tunisia is an important asset for investors considering exports to Europe. Tunisia is planning to set up a pipeline network to transport green hydrogen from Gabès and Tataouine to the Cap-Bon region.

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