Switzerland: Section 74, Paragraph 2 of the Federal Constitution: In principle, all the formulations of the concept of precaution in environmental protection are based on the notion that indeterminable risks are to be avoided. Section 1, Paragraph 2 of the Environmental Protection Act (EPA) [Umweltschutzgesetz, USG]: “Precaution as defined implies that any effects likely to be harmful or noxious are to be limited early on.” This formulation comprises the obligation to limit effects below the threshold of harmfulness and the obligation to limit effects for which no threshold of harmfulness can be ascertained by scientific means. Section 148a of the Agricultural Act [Landwirtschaftsgesetz]: revised as part of the 2007 Agricultural Policy, it defines the precautionary principle in accord with those of the EU (WHO, 2003[1]).
Greece: The PP is indirectly integrated in national law. Article 24 of the Greek Constitution: the state government takes “preventive or repressive measures” to ensure and support sustainability and protect the environment. In addition, Article 15 of the Basic Act on Biodiversity Conservation: the state should implement measures to “avoid any risk that threatens the structure of the ecosystems and prevents or reduces any environmental” damage" (Koehler, L., Giovos, I., & Lowther, J., 2022[2]).
Sweden: Chapter 2, Section 3 of the Environmental Code (1998): it adheres to the strong version of the principle and includes two important aspects: the requirement to take measures to prevent harm applies already when there is a scientifically established risk thereof; and, in order to avoid the requirements, the operator must show that there is no risk ( (Michanek, 2007[3]); (Michanek, 2012[4]) (Pettersson, 2016[5]).
In some EU countries such as Belgium or the Netherlands, the courts recognise the precautionary principle provided that it has been included in a normative text. In Belgium, the principle was first introduced in Belgian legislation in a decree of the Flemish Region of 5 April 1995, while on a federal level it was reiterated in the Federal law of 30 January 1999, aimed at protecting the marine environment in the maritime areas under Belgian jurisdiction (Article 4). In the latter, the principle is directly binding on all users of the marine environment, both public and private (Nicolas De Sadeleer, 2000[6]).
Italy: The Environment Code includes many explicit references to the PP. Article 3 enumerates it as one of the general principles of environment law, and Article 301 is called "the conversion of the precautionary principle”. The first paragraph stipulates that, in the presence of dangers (potential or confirmed), a high protection level must be guaranteed, even in the absence of scientific certainties on the risk existence. The following paragraphs delimitate the application of the principle (in compliance with the European Commission Communication on 2 February 2000), especially stipulating that the application of the principle refers to the risk that may be identified after a preliminary objective scientific assessment. The principle is also invoked in certain normative technical deeds, such as: the Law no. 36/2001 (about the protection against the exposure to electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields), the Legislative Decree of the Government no. 224/2003 (on the deliberated dissemination of the genetically modified organisms in the environment), and the Legislative Decree of the Government no. 257/2006 (on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to asbestos at work) (Fainisi, Florin; Ilie, Marian; Artene, Diana Anca, 2012[7]).
In other countries such as Spain, the principle was not raised to the rank of constitutional principle and the courts based their decisions on the precautionary principle only if the provisions under consideration derived from European legislation. The first domain covered through legislation was environmental protection with Law no. 11/2001 (on the creation of the Spanish Agency for food security), and later Law no. 9/2003 (establishing the legal regime around the limited use and commercialisation of genetically modified organisms; it stipulates that the principles on which the law is based are those existing in the European and international area). The autonomous communities of Spain also have the legal capacity to introduce the principle in their legislation (e.g., the Catalan law on the food security, and the law on public health in the Valencia region) (Fainisi, Florin; Ilie, Marian; Artene, Diana Anca, 2012[7]).