A robust education policy framework is essential for developing human capital and meeting the labour market’s need for a skilled and productive labour force. This chapter, composed of four sub-dimensions, assesses the presence and efficacy of education strategies, legislation, programmes and institutions. The first sub-dimension, equitable education for an inclusive society, examines system governance and the quality of pre-university education starting from preschool. The second, teachers, looks at the selection, initial training and ongoing professional development and management of the teaching workforce. The third sub-dimension, school-to-work transition, focuses on vocational education and the labour market relevance and outcomes of higher education. The fourth sub-dimension, skills for green-digital transition, explores the frameworks and initiatives for fostering green and digital skills in education curricula.
Western Balkans Competitiveness Outlook 2024: North Macedonia
Abstract
North Macedonia’s overall score for education policy has remained stable since the previous CO assessment, positioned slightly below the regional average (Table 8.1). This stagnation in the score is primarily attributed to the economy’s weaker performance in promoting green and digital skills – an area assessed for the first time in this assessment cycle. However, North Macedonia made progress in several other areas, namely through bolstering system governance and improving the labour market relevance of higher education.
The key findings are:
North Macedonia possesses a strong education governance system, as reflected through comprehensive strategic documents, such as its Education Strategy 2018-25. However, the strategy lacks specific targets for learning outcomes, which is notable given the economy’s relatively weak performance in international assessments such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA).
Recent reforms aimed at enhancing early childhood education and care (ECEC) underscore ongoing efforts to improve enrolment and quality in education. Yet despite these efforts, the overall enrolment rate of 3-6 year-olds in ECEC was only 42% in 2022 – less than half of the EU target of 96%.
There is a substantial need to increase the priority to ensure accessible, high-quality professional development opportunities for teachers. Currently, insufficient funding from the Bureau for Development of Education limits teachers’ ability to fulfil the legally prescribed 60 training hours, which in turn can hinder the quality of instruction provided in schools.
Ongoing efforts to expand opportunities for work-based learning (WBL) and to establish several Regional VET Centres signal a positive development toward improving VET programmes’ linkages to the demands of the labour market. However, given that these initiatives are still relatively nascent, their impact on improving graduates’ employability has yet to be observed.
Although North Macedonia has several policies that aim to integrate digital skills into curricula and promote the use of technology in classrooms, the lack of a comprehensive, systematic data collection and monitoring system limits the ability to assess existing initiatives’ efficacy.
In the past few years, the enrolment rates at different levels of education in North Macedonia have shown diverging trends. For instance, there has recently been a slight decrease of nearly 3 percentage points in the gross enrolment rate in primary education, which fell from 94.0% in 2017 to 91.4% in 2022 (UIS, 2024[1]). On the other hand, gross enrolment rates in secondary education have steadily grown over the same period, rising from 77.7% to 81.4%. However, despite this increase, enrolment in secondary education remains far below EU and OECD area levels (106.7% and 105.9%, respectively). It is worth noting that the use of gross enrolment rates is due to the lack of data on net enrolment rates, which makes comparability with the other WB6 economies more difficult.
North Macedonia’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2022 scores are below both the regional and OECD averages (Figure 8.1). Furthermore, compared to 2018, its score significantly decreased in mathematics, reading and science by 14, 34, and 33 points, respectively. 66% of participating students scored below Level 2 in PISA 2022, more than double the OECD average of 30%. In addition, 81% of students at the bottom of the PISA index of economic, social, and cultural status were also considered to be low performers in PISA 2022, highlighting the correlation between lower socio‑economic status and poor academic performance (OECD, 2023[2]).
Scoring in reading, mathematics and science is expressed in points
Note: WB6 average excludes Bosnia and Herzegovina for PISA 2015 and PISA 2022, and excludes Serbia for PISA 2015.
Source: OECD (2023[2]).
North Macedonia’s system governance is among the most robust of the WB6 economies; its impressive performance is underpinned by the ongoing or completed alignment of several features of its education system with policies and practices found in European and OECD area systems. For instance, there is a comprehensive strategy for education, the Education Strategy 2018-25, which outlines the major challenges and strategic priorities at all levels, ranging from preschool to university education as well as adult learning. Namely, there are goals to expand coverage for preschool education, make school curricula more relevant to labour market demands, and strengthen the competency of teaching staff at all system levels. The strategy is complemented by an Action Plan, which translates the priorities outlined in the strategy into specific measures, complete with output indicators, deadlines, and the responsible government entities for implementation. These high-level strategic documents were developed in consultation with a range of stakeholders and contain clear timelines and allocations of responsibilities. However, the strategy does not include targets to raise learning outcomes despite North Macedonia’s relatively weak performance in international assessments. The Ministry of Education and Science (MoES) is the primary institution responsible for developing strategic, legal and policy documents for all levels of education apart from pre-primary education.
Regarding the collection and analysis of educational data, several government institutions issue annual reports on education performance: the MoES tracks progress on its working programme; the State Educational Inspectorate conducts school inspections and publishes its findings; and the State Examination Centre assesses student performance in national and international assessments. The State Statistical Office also publishes data on the economy’s education system annually. However, there are no independent assessments or research on the economy’s education strategy, such as ex ante reviews of major policies or thematic evaluations on specific topics. Moreover, while North Macedonia has had an operational education management information system (EMIS) since 2010, education data remain fragmented, as various ministries and agencies continue to collect their own information. Information about the education system’s performance is published on each institution’s respective website.
The Education Strategy 2018-25 aims to enhance early childhood education and care (ECEC) quality and equity, but this requires refined monitoring mechanisms and budget allocation. Efforts aimed at restructuring financing methods, improving accessibility among socio-economically disadvantaged families, and reinforcing staff training are some of the ongoing reforms for inclusive and higher-quality ECEC provision in North Macedonia.
The Law on Child Protection establishes that the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy (MLSP) (rather than the MoES) has the primary responsibility for ECEC, meaning that it regulates and ensures adherence to prescribed requirements (e.g. on infrastructure, heating, hygiene, etc.). The Law also mandates that the MoES and the Bureau for Development of Education oversee the competency of ECEC professionals as well as the relevance of the curriculum. However, there is a lack of co-ordination among government institutions when developing policies and legislation, hampering their implementation (European Commission, 2023[3]).
While the Education Strategy 2018-25 analyses and reviews the activities related to improving the quality and equity of ECEC, its monitoring mechanisms are not well defined. Targets and indicators are not sufficiently clear to allow a proper evaluation of the implementation of the reforms (European Commission, 2023[3]). Funding from the national budget and international sources is generally used to support activities, yet no specific budget is set for the individual activities proposed in the Action Plan. Moreover, North Macedonia spends much less on ECEC compared to the average across OECD countries (0.34% of GDP versus 0.80%, respectively) (Eurydice, 2023[4]; OECD, 2023[5]). However, investing in the sector is now one of the top priorities of the MLSP. Work is under way to change the formula for financing the education and care system, which will also change the costs for parents. The intention is for socio-economically disadvantaged families and single parents to be exempted from payment.
North Macedonia’s Government has pledged to expand preschool enrolment for children aged 3 to 6 by 50%. In that regard, the MLSP is working in co-operation with the municipalities to develop the capacities for the care and education of children (Eurydice, 2023[6]). Some progress was made on preschool education, although the overall level of enrolment remains lower than the EU target: indeed, whereas the EU set the goal of having a 96% enrolment rate in ECEC, only 42% of 3-6 year-olds in North Macedonia were enrolled in ECEC in 2022 (European Commission, 2023[3]). Rates are even lower among diverse groups, including children from socio-economically disadvantaged families or Roma children. For example, the average enrolment rate rises to more than 50% for the children in the wealthiest quantile in North Macedonia – yet it is less than 10% among those from the poorest quantile (World Bank, 2023[7]). However, while preschool coverage remains limited, the quality of this education has been increasing through the licensing of professional and management staff as well as training for employees.
To monitor the ECEC sector, the MLSP collects data on enrolment, child-staff ratios and staff qualifications monthly. Additionally, the World Bank, through the Social Services Improvement Project, began developing a tool for measuring early childhood development by analysing the quality and results of early learning. MELQO (Measuring Early Learning Quality and Outcomes), this tool has provided a baseline that has subsequently enabled follow-up research since 2021. However, it is important to note that while there are mechanisms for improving ECEC’s quality and equity, the lack of alignment and integration between the goals of ECEC and primary education curricula can impede children’s transition between the two levels of education.
The Education Strategy 2018-25 and its Action Plan outline objectives for quality education for all and additionally allocate responsibilities for actions, and establish timelines for implementation. However, these documents do not set out any specific, measurable goals for the sector or budget allocation, apart from mention of the need for additional funding, nor is there a defined process for monitoring progress and implementation. To complement these strategic documents, North Macedonia has also developed the National Roma Strategy of North Macedonia 2022-30 and its draft Action Plan as well as the draft National Strategy for the Rights of Persons with Disabilities of North Macedonia.
Learning standards are in place to detail the knowledge and competencies that students should possess at different levels of education. One notable development since the last assessment cycle has been the ongoing reform to the national curriculum for primary education, based on the “Concept of primary education” adopted in March 2021 (Ministry of Education and Science, 2021[8]). The new curriculum prioritises inclusiveness, gender equality and multiculturalism. By defining the goals and expected results for students to achieve in each respective subject and grade, it also aligns with the new National Standards for Students Achievement (also adopted in 2021). The revised curricula were fully introduced for Grades 1 to 6 by the academic year 2023/24.
North Macedonia uses national assessments and examinations and its participation in international assessments to gather data on student learning. Regarding the former, the State Matura is the primary national examination at the end of upper secondary education, serving both certification and tertiary placement purposes. It is managed by the National Examinations Centre. For students not taking the State Matura, the school matura exam is mandatory, indicating completion of upper secondary education but not granting access to tertiary education. Additionally, a new national assessment in Grades 3 and 5, financially supported by the World Bank, began being implemented in Grade 3 in 2022. The assessment will be implemented in a sample of students in public primary schools with Macedonian and Albanian languages of instruction.
The National Examinations Centre also manages the economy’s participation in international assessments, such as PISA, the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS), the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS). In 2023, North Macedonia completed the main testing for TIMSS 2023 as well as pre-testing for TALIS 2024. However, it is worth noting that the economy's participation in PISA 2025 has not yet been confirmed, potentially interrupting its involvement after three consecutive assessment cycles (2015, 2018 and 2022).
Policies are in place to prevent early school leaving, with a particular focus on Roma children. Additionally, policies aim to enhance inclusion and interethnic integration, support students with special educational needs and ensure universal access to early learning for children aged 3 to 6 years. Various scholarships are available, including those for students facing financial barriers to tertiary education, awarded through annual open competitions with varying criteria. Furthermore, students with disabilities and those lacking parental support are exempt from tuition fees.
The Law on Higher Education Institutions for Teaching Staff in Pre-school, Primary and Secondary Education1 was drafted to regulate higher educational institutions (HEIs) that offer initial training education (ITE) programmes for teachers. It defines minimum entry thresholds for ITE, such as high school graduation and proof of admission to tertiary education. Due to insufficient human and financial resources, the Law’s policies had not been implemented during the last assessment cycle, leading to a subsequent postponement of its entry into force.
Despite these issues with the policy framework guiding ITE, there are several mechanisms for selection into ITE programmes in place in North Macedonia. The main requirement for entry is that students must have completed four years of secondary school and passed the State Matura examination (corresponding to a level IV qualification within the North Macedonia Qualifications Framework2). Admission is generally not competitive, as most applicants receive a place. Moreover, due to the ongoing shortage of mathematics and physics teachers, the MoES incentivises high school graduates to pursue further education in these fields by providing a monthly scholarship of MKD 18 000 (EUR 292) for the duration of the school year to those who enrol with an average grade point average of over 7.0 (out of 10.0). Candidates must complete a practicum in the field as part of their studies.
There are alternative pathways to enter the teaching profession mid-career for individuals with relevant skills and experience gained outside of education. However, these individuals must complete pedagogical-psychological and methodological preparation by attending classes and taking exams, completing at least 45 days of practical classes in primary or secondary school.
To formally enter the teaching profession, individuals must have obtained a diploma from a teaching facility and a licence issued by the Academy of Teachers. They also must be formally registered in the Register of Licensed Teachers. Other requirements include being a citizen of North Macedonia and possessing knowledge of both the Macedonian standard language and any other relevant languages of instruction. Additionally, teachers must complete a one-year traineeship (which takes place during their first year) under the direction of a professional mentor who the school principal chooses. After this traineeship, candidates must pass an examination to secure continued employment.
The Education Strategy 2018-25 addresses the issue of the professional development of teachers. The Law on Teachers and Professional Associates in Primary and Secondary Schools (adopted in 2019) promotes the professional development of teachers and other teaching staff in primary and secondary schools. The Law on Teachers introduced a model for their career development and promotion based on differentiated teacher standards. To be promoted from teacher to “teacher mentor”, teachers must meet several requirements: possess a permanent contract, have at least seven years of experience, and fulfil the relevant professional standards. Promotion from “teacher mentor” to “teacher advisor” requires at least nine years of work experience, spending at least three of these years as a “teacher mentor”. Teachers must devote at least 60 hours of training during the three school years as part of their continuing professional development, 40 of which must be from programmes accredited by the Bureau for Development of Education. The remaining 20 hours of professional development can be realised through projects supported by the MoES, inter-school learning teams, training provided through schools, or individual training. Professional development needs are determined using a range of sources, such as self-appraisals or surveys and appraisals by school leadership. There is some variety in the types of activities and programmes; however, there are no online courses or seminars nor peer or self‑observation and coaching.
The Bureau for Development of Education is expected to pay for continuous professional development programmes for teachers. However, it has not been allocated sufficient budget to meet the legally prescribed number of teacher training hours. Therefore, with financial support from the World Bank through the project “Improving the quality of primary education in North Macedonia”, a Catalogue of accredited training courses for teachers on various subjects was prepared for the first time in 2020. As stipulated by this Catalogue, during 2022 and 2023, all primary school teachers chose and attended two training sessions (16 hours) on topics of interest to improve their professional competencies. While this donor assistance has proved integral to expanding the professional development opportunities available to educators, there is little indication that this practice will be continued through expanded funding from the state budget.
A number of institutions are responsible for VET governance in North Macedonia. The Centre for VET develops curricula for professional subjects, while the Bureau for Development of Education focuses on general subjects. The MoES approves the programmes prepared by the Bureau, which VET schools then implement. Chambers, or organisations representing various sectors or industries,3 oversee employers' compliance with practical training conditions and monitor agreements between VET providers, employers and students. The MLSP adopts occupational standards proposed by the MoES and collaborates on professional qualification standards. The Centre for Adult Education validates adult education programmes following occupational and qualification standards.
Several mechanisms are in place to assess and certify the quality of VET programmes. New VET providers undergo an approval process and accreditation while existing programmes are regularly evaluated and inspected, with ongoing assessments to ensure that VET qualifications are both rigorous and transferable. Moreover, to ensure that students have accrued the necessary skills and knowledge through these programmes, they must take a final exam upon completion of their respective courses. Graduates who attend a four-year VET programme (ISCED 4) can either pass the State Matura exam (if they want to continue to higher education) or a final exam (to enter into the labour market). Conversely, students in three-year VET programmes (ISCED 3) only have the option to take the latter examination.
Since the last assessment cycle, notable developments have been aimed at enhancing the VET system in North Macedonia. One has been the recent efforts to establish several Regional VET Centres, which seek to provide students with high-quality VET education and thus facilitate their entrance into the labour market (Eurydice, 2023[9]). In 2023, the government made progress toward opening two centres in the cities of Strumica and Veles. These efforts are supported by the EU-funded project, “EU for Youth”; while this initiative has a component focused on vocational education, it also aims to counter youth unemployment by implementing the Youth Guarantee Scheme (see Chapter 9). However, an ongoing challenge with creating these Regional VET Centres is that their exclusive location in cities engenders significant disparities in access between individuals living in urban versus rural areas of the economy.
North Macedonia has also made progress in developing its work-based learning (WBL) framework, which is guided by the Law on Vocational Education and Training. There are incentive schemes in place to encourage employers’ participation in apprenticeships and WBL programmes – a vital development given that a significant obstacle to expanding WBL is the lack of placement opportunities.4 The Centre for Vocational Education and Training collects a wide variety of data to monitor WBL outcomes, including information on the locations and types of WBL opportunities, attendance and completion rates of WBL programmes, duration of WBL placements, and wages earned. However, there is no data gathered on post-apprenticeship employment, which limits the ability to evaluate and reform existing programmes to further facilitate the school-to-work transition.
The Law on Higher Education and the Education Strategy 2018-25 cover issues related to higher education (HE). Both documents emphasise that study programmes should prioritise employability as a key goal. Relevant stakeholders are included in the process of designing, approving and evaluating study programmes. The Education Strategy’s Action Plan delineates the measures linked to advancing higher education content for greater employability of graduate students, the mobility of academic staff and students, enhancement of the quality assurance system, and the internationalisation of the education system. Internationalisation in higher education is a regular part of the government’s activities related to the Bologna Process, and as such, it is promoted and a regular part of HEIs’ policies and programmes. HEIs are mandated to use at least 40% of the revenue generated from tuition fees for the mobility of academic staff and students and the system’s overarching internationalisation. North Macedonia actively participates in the Erasmus+ (as a member) and CEEPUS programmes (Central European Exchange Programme for University Studies). Mobility is usually part of bilateral agreements as well. Accreditation of HEIs is under the responsibility of the Higher Education Accreditation and Evaluation Board, which is an independent body; however, the Higher Education Quality Agency was recently established and will also oversee HEIs’ accreditation once it reaches full functionality. A National Qualifications Framework Board (established in 2019) aims to ensure the transparency and visibility of qualifications.
A range of data sources, such as employer surveys, surveys of workers or graduates, quantitative forecasting models and data on employment rates by field of study, are used by the State Statistical Office to monitor labour market information. However, one notable gap in this data collection is the absence of sector studies, which seek to identify the skills, knowledge and competencies demanded by employers in key sectors, such as ICT or agriculture. Data are publicly available on the State Statistical Office website. HEIs use the data provided by that Office or the State Employment Agency to understand labour market outcomes. There are several mechanisms to align HE with labour market demand, such as grants, scholarships for in-demand programmes, communications/awareness campaigns for select programmes and the use of labour market data to inform curriculum design.
There is no framework for students' digital skills, but some provisions have been made in some policy documents in the field of education and cybersecurity. Digital skills development is incorporated into primary and secondary education curricula. Within the national standards, there is an area for digital literacy. This area includes the competencies that ensure active involvement in the technologically sophisticated modern society. Policies related to digital skills for students have been informed by co‑operation between the public and private sectors, academia and other relevant stakeholders.
For every new syllabus, seminars are organised for all teachers who teach Informatics. Syllabi for developing digital skills (technical education and informatics for primary education, informatics and programming for secondary education and also advanced syllabi for math and informatics gymnasium) is developed with the collaboration of the faculty for computer science and informatics. Teachers are also involved in the process of developing syllabi. The Education Strategy 2018-25 includes objectives aiming to continue introducing computers with Internet access into classrooms to promote digital skills development. However, monitoring indicators on students' digital skills is weak.
Green skills are then elaborated in the curricula from Grades 1 to 9 and include acquiring knowledge and skills and attitudes and values in the field. The natural sciences curriculum emphasises the acquisition of knowledge and development of green skills, which aims to develop these skills and form attitudes and values among students for the care and protection of the environment. There is an opportunity to study optional subjects of the student's choice to improve health, the living environment and climate change. Within the framework of the national standards, there are competencies that students should achieve in the natural sciences that refer to the ability and readiness to apply knowledge and evidence-based approaches in explaining natural phenomena and improving people's lives, as well as to gaining an understanding the changes in nature that are caused by the impact of human activities on the environment.
North Macedonia’s progress in implementing CO 2021 Recommendations has been varied. The economy achieved strong progress in finalising the development of and administering a national standardised assessment for primary education. On the other hand, no advances were made toward establishing clear budgets to ensure sufficient funding for the education agencies to facilitate their planned activities. Table 8.2 shows a more detailed picture of North Macedonia’s progress in implementing past recommendations for education policy.
Considering the implementation level of the previous recommendations, there are still areas in which North Macedonia could strengthen its policy framework and institutional capacities in the domain of education policy. As such, policy makers may wish to:
Ensure continuity between ECEC and primary education. There is a crucial need for improved collaboration between the MLSP, the MoES, and the Bureau for Development of Education. Augmented co-operation among these entities could help to align strategic system goals and curriculum standards between ECEC and primary education. Moreover, these entities should work together to develop cohesive policies and frameworks to ensure smooth transitions for children from ECEC to primary education, promoting continuity and coherence in their educational journey, as is done in Japan (Box 8.1).
Japan has instituted several measures to facilitate children’s transitions between early childhood education and primary school. The country has established four distinct curricular guidelines for children aged 0 to 8, with three focusing on ECEC.
Local governments possess the autonomy to develop and carry out accompanying strategies that promote a smooth transition. For example, some local governments implement an “Approach” curriculum as children end their time in ECEC. This curriculum employs a strengths‑based approach to help children prepare for primary school. Conversely, during the initial months of primary education, several local governments use a “Start” curriculum to ease the adjustment by utilising teaching and learning strategies already familiar to children (such as shorter class periods and floor-based activities).
Moreover, in conjunction with these local government efforts, the national government also reviews all curricular guidelines simultaneously to ensure their alignment with a common overarching concept. The most recent revision, which took place in 2017, delineated common competencies that should be developed from ECEC through secondary education, emphasising the smooth transition between different education levels.
Source: Shuey et al. (2019[10]).
Allocate sufficient funds to support comprehensive implementation of professional development initiatives, as outlined in the Law on Teachers and Professional Associates in Primary and Secondary Schools. Ensuring teachers have access to accredited training programmes and resources by addressing funding limitations is key to facilitating ongoing professional growth and career advancement opportunities.
Improve collaboration with the private sector to ensure alignment between curricula and labour market needs. Despite recent progress in improving the labour market relevance of VET and higher education programmes, ongoing challenges in the school-to-work transition underscore the need to enhance curriculum quality. Partnering with employers, especially in the private sector, could boost the quality of education and promote a greater focus on work-based learning and practical experience.
Strengthen data collection mechanisms to monitor post-apprenticeship employment outcomes effectively. The government of North Macedonia could develop a comprehensive system for tracking the employment status of VET graduates after completing WBL programmes. By collecting and analysing this data on hiring rates and job placements, the findings could be used to evaluate the effectiveness of vocational education initiatives in facilitating successful transitions to the workforce.
Improve the monitoring and assessment of digital skills acquisition among students. The MoES should implement robust data collection mechanisms to track students' progress in developing digital competencies, including standardised assessments and surveys. The ministry should also gather data to evaluate whether current mechanisms for integrating digital skills into education curricula are effective and identify areas for further improvement.
References
[3] European Commission (2023), North Macedonia 2023 Report, https://neighbourhood-enlargement.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2023-11/SWD_2023_693%20North%20Macedonia%20report.pdf (accessed on 24 January 2024).
[4] Eurydice (2023), North Macedonia: Funding of Early Childhood Education and Care, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/republic-north-macedonia/early-childhood-and-school-education-funding (accessed on 22 April 2024).
[6] Eurydice (2023), North Macedonia: National Reforms in Early Childhood Education and Care, European Commission, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/republic-north-macedonia/national-reforms-early-childhood-education-and (accessed on 14 March 2024).
[9] Eurydice (2023), North Macedonia: National Reforms in Vocational Education and Training and Adult Learning, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/republic-north-macedonia/national-reforms-vocational-education-and (accessed on 24 April 2024).
[8] Ministry of Education and Science (2021), Concept on Primary Education, https://mon.gov.mk/stored/document/Koncepcija%20MK.pdf.
[2] OECD (2023), PISA 2022 Results (Volume I): The State of Learning and Equity in Education, PISA, OECD Publishing, https://doi.org/10.1787/53f23881-en.
[5] OECD (2023), Public Spending on Childcare and Early Education, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/PF3_1_Public_spending_on_childcare_and_early_education.pdf (accessed on 22 April 2024).
[10] Shuey, E. et al. (2019), “Curriculum alignment and progression between early childhood education and care and primary school: A brief review and case studies”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 193, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/curriculum-alignment-and-progression-between-early-childhood-education-and-care-and-primary-school_d2821a65-en (accessed on 16 April 2024).
[1] UIS (2024), Gross Enrolment Ratio by Level of Education, http://data.uis.unesco.org/# (accessed on 22 April 2024).
[7] World Bank (2023), Financing Our Future: How to Improve the Efficiency of Education Spending in North Macedonia, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b86a8bed-9bad-44f3-849c-6c407558dd4e/content (accessed on 22 April 2024).
← 1. This law can be accessed here: http://mon.gov.mk/stored/document/zakon-za-visoko-obrazovni-ustanovi-mk.pdf.
← 2. Level IV within the North Macedonia Qualifications Framework corresponds to ISCED 3, or upper secondary education.
← 3. Specific chambers involved in VET governance include the Chamber of Commerce, the Association of Chambers, and the Craftsmen Chamber.
← 4. This insight came from the OECD fact-finding mission with stakeholders that took place in October 2023 in Skopje, North Macedonia.