Man Enough? Measuring Masculine Norms to Promote Women’s Empowerment

4. Measuring progress towards gender-equitable masculinities 

Abstract

This chapter highlights the need for more data on masculinities to inform policy making. In order to facilitate the creation of an evidence base on the status of masculine norms, it proposes a list of indicators to measure each of the ten norms of restrictive masculinities presented in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3. Each list includes both currently available and ideal indicators that assess masculine norms based on laws, attitudes and social practices. The aim of this chapter is to guide future data collection efforts that can create a comparable and robust evidence base to support programmes and policies to promote gender-equitable masculine norms.

In order to address restrictive masculinities, policy makers need the right data

Monitoring social change towards more gender-equitable masculinities requires the right indicators to pinpoint challenges and track progress. Data and evidence have been an important part of the gender equality agenda. With the right data, policy makers and other stakeholders can identify the main challenges, design effective policies and programmes, and understand the relationships between legal frameworks, social norms and women’s outcomes. In doing so, data allow them to monitor the impact of policies, legal reforms and programmes, and the same can be true when it comes to shifting masculinities, provided that the right data are available.

The right data for monitoring progress towards gender-equitable masculinities should allow insights into the attitudes, practices and legal frameworks that signal declining acceptance of restrictive masculinities. Attitudinal data should measure a decrease in the percentage of the population – including both women and men – that supports gender-inequitable statements and behaviours. Moreover, as individual men must navigate these norms and, in doing so, have opportunities to choose whether to adopt or reject these norms, it is important to understand how they see the risks of not conforming to these dominant ideals. In order to measure these views, there is a need for indicators that assess men’s perceptions of their communities’ beliefs. However, these attitudinal variables may not be enough to understand how widespread norms of restrictive masculinities are. As such, these data should be accompanied by indicators of the prevalence of harmful practices – such as violence against women – and outcomes data indicating gender imbalances, such as the percentage of women in parliaments. Finally, indicators assessing legal frameworks add another layer of insight. Laws can not only reflect the social norms governing a society, but they can also create constraints and opportunities when it comes to the behaviours of men and women that may uphold restrictive masculinities. For instance, legal frameworks that do not permit women to be heads of household send a clear message that men are, by default, the decision makers in households.

Using a combination of available data and proposals for new indicators, this chapter proposes a list of indicators to guide efforts to measure progress towards changing masculinities. Specifically, this chapter suggests a list of indicators that policy makers can currently use to track progress in transforming masculinities across the ten defining norms described in Chapters 2 and 3, presented in Table 4.1. Each table contains indicators to measure laws, attitudes associated with restrictive masculinities, and the consequences of these norms for women and girls (Table 4.2 to Table 4.11). Each table includes “ideal” indicators identified to best measure progress; however, as there are very few available ideal indicators, and those which are available are limited by low country coverage, tracking progress towards gender-equitable masculinities at present remains limited. As such, each table also includes a list of currently available indicators. In doing so, the tables provide a way forward for future data collection efforts to identify and measure the status of masculinities and their impact on women’s empowerment across countries at the global level.

These lists of indicators reveal and respond to critical data gaps and important asymmetries between developing and developed countries. First, there are more data available on gender norms in the private sphere in developing countries, whereas in developed countries most of the available data on gender norms and norms of restrictive masculinities focus on the economic and public sphere. Second, there are more data available on gender-equitable masculinities in developed countries. This risks giving the impression that gender-equitable masculinities originate or exist only in developed countries. Both of these trends in the data point to the pressing need for a universal measurement that, on the one hand, recognises both the public and private spheres as sites of norms of masculinities, and on the other hand, allows for the measurement of progress towards gender-equitable masculinities in a comparable manner across developed and developing countries.

Table 4.1. The ten defining norms of restrictive masculinities

Economic and political spheres	Private sphere
Norms of restrictive masculinities say a “real” man should:
Be the breadwinner	Not to unpaid care and domestic work
Be financially dominant	Have the final say in household decisions
Work in “manly” jobs	Control household assets
Be the “ideal worker”	Protect and exercise guardianship
Be a “manly” leader	Dominate sexual and reproductive choices

Note: This is not an exhaustive list of all norms of restrictive masculinities. The objective in the creation of this list was to account for those norms which have the most significant, and direct impact on the empowerment of women and girls.

The data presented below permit important analysis of the mechanisms of norms of masculinities. For example, a correlation analysis of available indicators reveals that restrictive masculinities are self-reinforcing, whereas this is not the case for gender-equitable masculinities. In this analysis, two types of indicators were used: i) indicators measuring the percentage of the population agreeing with norms of restrictive masculinities, and ii) indicators measuring the percentage of the population supporting gender-equitable masculinities. Indeed, the correlation among the first set of indicators is higher and much more significant than among the second. This means that where some norms of restrictive masculinities are widely accepted, other norms of restrictive masculinities are as well. For example, where the norm that men are breadwinners is widespread, the other norms listed in this report are likely also widespread. Conversely, when a norm of gender-equitable masculinities is widely supported by the population, others are not necessarily also widely accepted. Findings such as these rely on the availability of quality data and provide interesting results to be considered in policy making and programming.

Table 4.2. Be the breadwinner

Indicators tracking progress towards gender-equitable masculine norms

	Indicators	Country coverage	Year	Data source
Ideal indicators
Legal framework	Number of countries with legal frameworks mandating non-discrimination on the basis of sex in employment	180	2009-19	SIGI
Attitudes	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: Men should really be the ones to bring money home to provide for their families, not women	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: A man who stays at home to look after his children is less of a man	27	2019	Ipsos
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: In my community, it is important that men are the ones who make money to provide for their families, not women	-	-	-
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Female labour force participation and employment rates	141	2010-20	ILO
	Prevalence of female informal employment	38	2010-19	ILO
	Percentage of low-paid workers, among all low-paid workers, who are female	54	2010-19	ILO
Available indicators
Legal framework	-	-	-	-
Attitudes	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: When jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women	49	1990/94-2017/20	WVS
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: The most important role of a man is to earn money	28	2017	Eurobarometer
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: Responsibility for providing financial support to the family rests with the husband [*]	12	2015	IMAGES (Promundo)
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: It is a man’s job to earn money and a woman’s job to take care of the home and family	2	2017/20	WVS (gender module)
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: Men should support their family financially in order to be good husbands/partners	1	2017	Pew Research Center
Consequences for women’s empowerment	-	-	-	-

Note: Data on this indicator marked with [*] have been collected in 12 countries using slightly different wording. Information on IMAGES data will be completed after Promundo’s IMAGES Optimisation process.

Table 4.3. Be financially dominant

Indicators tracking progress towards gender-equitable masculine norms

	Indicators	Country coverage	Year	Data source
Ideal indicators
Legal framework	Number of countries with a legal framework mandating equal remuneration for work of equal value	190	1971-2020	WBL
Attitudes	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: If a women earns more money than her husband, it’s almost certain to cause problems	49	1995/98-2017/20	WVS
	Percentage of the population considering it acceptable that in some circumstances, a woman is paid less than a male colleague for the same job	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: Men should earn more than their spouse	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: In my community, a man who earns less than his wife will be judged	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: Men should earn more than their female colleagues	-	-	-
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Gender wage gap by occupation	39	2010-20	ILO
	Representation of women in managerial positions	161	2010-19	ILO
	Representation of women in senior and middle management positions	108	2010-19	ILO
	Representation of women on company boards	57	2016-20	MSCI
	Percentage of women reporting that they take part in the decision-making process at home	-	-	-
Available indicators
Legal framework	-	-	-	-
Attitudes	Percentage considering it acceptable that in some circumstances, a woman is paid less than a male colleague for the same job	28	2017	Eurobarometer
	Percentage of the population finding it acceptable that women earn less than men for the same work	17	2021	Focus 2030 and Women Deliver
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: When jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women	49	1990/94-2017/20	WVS
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Percentage of women for whom the decision-maker regarding major household purchases is mainly the husband	70	1999-2018	DHS

Table 4.4. Work in “manly” jobs

Indicators tracking progress towards gender-equitable masculine norms

	Indicators	Country coverage	Year	Data source
Ideal indicators
Legal framework	Number of countries where the legal framework does not allow women to work in jobs deemed dangerous in the same way as men	190	1971-2020	WBL
	Number of countries where the legal framework does not allow women to work in the same industries as men	190	1971-2020	WBL
Attitudes	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: A man who works in “feminine jobs”, such as a nurse, nanny, teacher, etc., is less of a man	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: In my community, if men work in “feminine jobs”, such as a nurse, nanny, teacher, etc., they are/would be judged	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population associating some jobs as feminine or masculine, not as gender neutral	2	2020	SIGI country studies
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Representation of women as heads of states (presidents)	38	2003-20	EIGE
	Representation of women in parliaments	190	1997-2018	IPU
	Representation of women in managerial positions	161	2010-19	ILO
	Representation of women in senior and middle management positions	108	2010-19	ILO
	Representation of women on company boards	57	2016-20	MSCI
	Female representation in “manly” jobs and sectors	-	-	-
	Percentage of elected seats held by women in deliberative bodies of local government	115	2018	UN Women
Available indicators
Legal framework	Number of countries with a legal framework that prohibits women from entering certain professions	180	2009-19	SIGI
	Number of countries with a legal framework that does not allow women to work the same night hours as men	180	2009-19	SIGI
Attitudes	-	-	-	-
Consequences for women’s empowerment	-	-	-	-

Table 4.5. Be the “ideal worker”

Indicators tracking progress towards gender-equitable masculine norms

	Indicators	Country coverage	Year	Data source
Ideal indicators
Legal framework	Number of countries with a legal framework mandating paid paternity leave	180	2009-19	SIGI
	Number of countries with a legal framework mandating parental leave	180	2009-19	SIGI
Attitudes	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: The ideal worker has “masculine attributes”	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population approving of a man taking parental leave to take care of his children	28	2017	Eurobarometer
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: The ideal worker should prioritise work over family	-	-	-
	Percentage of men reporting that being manly/masculine will help them get a pay rise	4	2019	Ipsos
	Percentage of men reporting that being manly/masculine will help them get or keep a job	4	2019	Ipsos
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Female labour force participation and employment rates	141	2010-20	ILO
	Prevalence of female informal employment	38	2010-19	ILO
	Percentage of low-paid workers, among all low-paid workers, who are female	54	2010-19	ILO
	Female labour force participation rate	74	2010-19	ILO
	Number of users of publicly administered paternity leave benefits or publicly administered paid paternity leave per 100 live births	11	2005-16	OECD
Available indicators
Legal framework	-	-	-	-
Attitudes	-	-	-	-
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Percentage of currently working men who took no parental leave after birth of most recent child	15	Various years	IMAGES, Helping Dads Care Research Project

Table 4.6. Be a “manly” leader

Indicators tracking progress towards gender-equitable masculine norms

	Indicators	Country coverage	Year	Data source
Ideal indicators
Legal framework	Number of countries with a legal framework mandating non-discrimination on the basis of gender in political and economic leadership positions	-	-	-
Attitudes	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: A leader should have patriarchal masculine attributes in order to be successful	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: In my community, a leader is expected to have patriarchal masculine attributes	-	-	-
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Female labour force participation and employment rates	141	2010-20	ILO
	Prevalence of female informal employment	38	2010-19	ILO
	Percentage of low-paid workers, among all low-paid workers, who are female	54	2010-19	ILO
	Female labour force participation rate	74	2010-19	ILO
	Number of users of publicly administered paternity leave benefits or publicly administered paid paternity leave per 100 live births	11	2005-16	OECD
Available indicators
Legal framework	Number of countries with a legal framework that provides women with the same rights as men to hold public and political office, including in the legislature, executive and judiciary	180	2019	SIGI
Attitudes	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: Men make better political leaders than women do	49	1995/98-2017/20	WVS
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: Men make better business executives than women do	49	2005/09-2017/20	WVS
	Percentage of women and men agreeing with the following statement: I’d feel uncomfortable if my boss were a woman	27	2019	Ipsos
	Percentage of the population disagreeing with the following statement: I would feel very comfortable having a woman as CEO of a major company in my country	10	2018-20	Reykjavik Index for Leadership
	Percentage of the population disagreeing with the following statement: I would feel very comfortable having a woman as head of government in my country	10	2018-20	Reykjavik Index for Leadership
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: Women should leave politics to men	5	2017/18	IMAGES
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Proportion of elected seats held by women in deliberative bodies of local government	115	2018	UN Women

Table 4.7. Not do unpaid care and domestic work

Indicators tracking progress towards gender-equitable masculine norms

	Indicators	Country coverage	Year	Data source
Ideal indicators
Legal framework	Number of countries with a legal framework that provides men with the same rights as women to be the legal guardian of their children during marriage, after divorce	180	2019	SIGI
	Number of countries putting in place specific measures to allow fathers to benefit from shared custody after divorce	-	-	-
	Number of countries with a legal framework mandating paid paternity leave.	180	2019	SIGI
	Number of countries with a legal framework mandating parental leave	180	2019	SIGI
Attitudes	Percentage of the population declaring that childcare and housework are not tasks that are suitable for men	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population declaring that: In my community a man who does childcare and housework would be judged	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population associating some household activities with being masculine or feminine, not gender neutral	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: A man who stays at home to look after his children is less of a man	27	2019	Ipsos
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Percentage of the population reporting that they share equally childcare and housework	-	-	-
	The female to male ratio of participation rate in unpaid care and housework, by activity	-	-	-
Available indicators
Legal framework	-	-	-	-
Attitudes	Percentage of the population disapproving of a man doing an equal share of housework	28	2017	Eurobarometer
	Percentage of respondents agreeing that employers should make it easier for men to combine childcare with work	27	2019	Ipsos
	Percentage of the population finding it acceptable to let women do the majority of housework, childcare and elderly care	17	2021	Focus 2030 and Women Deliver
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: I think it is shameful when men engage in caring for children or other domestic work	5	2017/19	IMAGES
	Percentage of men agreeing with the following statement: society tells me that a husband shouldn't have to do household chores	3	2017	The Man Box
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Female to male ratio of average time spent on unpaid care and domestic work	102	2019	SIGI
	Percentage of ever-married respondents reporting that they participated in cleaning the bathroom, and/or preparing food in the previous month	8	Various years	IMAGES
	Percentage of men reporting that they change diapers of a child (age 0-4 years) several times a week or more	6	Various years	IMAGES
	Percentage of men reporting that they cook for a child (age 0-4 years) several times a week or more	6	Various years	IMAGES

Table 4.8. Have the final say in household decisions

Indicators tracking progress towards gender-equitable masculine norms

	Indicators	Country coverage	Year	Data source
Ideal indicators
Legal framework	Number of countries with a legal framework providing women with the same rights as men to be recognised as head of household	180	2009-19	SIGI
Attitudes	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: A man should have the final word about decisions in his home [*]	25	Various years	IMAGES
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: Most people in my community expect men to have the final word about decisions in the home	3	Various years	IMAGES
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Percentage of women taking part in the decision-making process at home	-	-	-
Available indicators
Legal framework	-	-	-	-
Attitudes	Percentage of women and men agreeing with the following statement: A wife does not have the right to challenge her husband’s opinions and decisions, even if she disagrees with him	3	Various years	IMAGES
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: Most people in my community believe that a wife does not have the right to challenge her husband’s opinions and decisions even if she disagrees with him	3	Various years	IMAGES
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Percentage of women who say that they alone or jointly have the final say in none of the three main decisions (accessing own healthcare; making large purchases; visiting family, relatives, friends)	69	1999-2018	DHS
	Percentage of women who say that they alone or jointly have the final say in none of the three main decisions (accessing own healthcare; making large purchases; visiting family, relatives, friends)	1	2019	IMAGES

Note: This indicator marked with [*] has been collected in 25 countries with slightly different wording. Information on IMAGES data will be completed after Promundo’s IMAGES Optimisation process.

Table 4.9. Control household assets

Indicators tracking progress towards gender-equitable masculine norms

	Indicators	Country coverage	Year	Data source
Ideal indicators
Legal framework	Number of countries with a legal framework that provides women with the same rights as men to administer the household’s financial assets	180	2009-19	SIGI
	Number of countries with a legal framework that provides women with the same rights as men to administer the household’s land assets	180	2009-19	SIGI
	Number of countries with a legal framework that provides women with the same rights as men to administer the household’s non-land and non-financial assets	-	-	-
Attitudes	Percentage of the population declaring that men should have sole decision-making authority over the household’s financial assets	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population agreeing that men should have a say in how the money women earn is spent	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: In my community, men are expected to make the major financial decisions for their households	-	-	-
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Percentage of women who report that they take part in the decision-making processes relating to household financial assets on an equal footing with men in the household	-	-	-
	Percentage of women who report that they take part in the decision-making processes relating to non-financial household assets on an equal footing with men in the household	-	-	-
	Percentage of women who report having the final say in how the money they earn is spent	-	-	-
Available indicators
Legal framework	-	-	-	-
Attitudes	-	-	-	-
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Percentage of women for whom the decision-maker regarding major household purchases is mainly the husband	70	1999-2018	DHS
	Percentage of respondents reporting that the husband/man usually makes decisions about large investments [*]	21	Various years	IMAGES
	Percentage of women who report letting their spouse take the lead on long-term financial decisions	10	2019	UBS

Note: Financial assets include formal and informal savings, bank accounts, credit, mortgages, mobile money and other informal financial services. This indicator marked with [*] has been collected in 19 countries with slightly different wording. Information on IMAGES data will be completed after Promundo’s IMAGES Optimisation process.

Table 4.10. Protect and exercise guardianship of women in the household

Indicators tracking progress towards gender-equitable masculine norms

	Indicators	Country coverage	Year	Data source
Ideal indicators
Legal framework	Number of countries with a legal framework that requires a married woman to obey her husband	180	2009-19	SIGI
	Number of countries with a legal framework that includes legal consequences if a wife disobeys her husband	180	2009-19	SIGI
	Number of countries with a legal framework that provides married women with the same rights as married men to choose where to live	180	2009-19	SIGI
	Number of countries with a legal framework that requires women to have permission from their husband/legal guardian to register a business	180	2009-19	SIGI
	Number of countries with a legal framework that requires women to have permission from her husband or legal guardian to work or choose a profession	180	2009-19	SIGI
Attitudes	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: A woman should obey her husband/partner	6	2013	UN multi-country study Asia-Pacific
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: It is a man’s duty to exercise guardianship over female relatives	5	2015-17	IMAGES
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: In my community, a woman is expected to obey the decisions of her husband/partner	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: A woman needs to seek approval from her husband/partner before: going outside; working for pay; opening a business; seeking healthcare; visiting friends or family; opening a bank account and/or applying for credit; obtaining a passport; travelling abroad	-	-	-
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Percentage of women reporting that they need to seek approval from their husband/partner before: going outside; working for pay; opening a business; seeking healthcare; visiting friends or family; opening a bank account and/or applying for credit; obtaining a passport; travelling abroad	-	-	-
Available indicators
Legal framework	-	-	-	-
Attitudes	Percentage of the population finding it acceptable for women to always obey her husband	17	2021	Focus 2030 and Women Deliver
	Percentage of women and men agreeing with the following statement: A woman does not have the right to challenge her man's opinions and decisions, even if she disagrees with him	3	Various years	IMAGES
	Percentage of men and women agreeing with the following statement: A married woman should have the same rights to work outside the home as her husband	4	2016	IMAGES
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Percentage of ever-married women whose husband/partner insists on knowing where she is at all times	54	2000-18	DHS
	Percentage of women for whom the decision-maker regarding visits to her family or relatives is mainly the husband	69	1999-2018	DHS
	Percentage of women who report that the decision-maker regarding their own healthcare is mainly the husband	70	1999-2018	DHS
	Percentage of women whose husband/partner tries to limit their contact with their family	55	2000-18	DHS
	Percentage of ever-married women whose husband/partner does not permit her to meet her female friends	54	2000-18	DHS
	Percentage of ever-partnered respondents agreeing with the following statement: Men tell women who she can spend time with [*]	17	Various years	IMAGES
	Percentage of ever-partnered respondents agreeing with the following statement: A husband controls when his wife can leave the house [*]	8	Various years	IMAGES

Note: UN multi-country study Asia-Pacific refers to the UN Multi-Country Study on Men and Violence in Asia and the Pacific which has data that cover six urban/rural areas. Data on the indicators marked with [*] have been collected using slightly different wording. Information on IMAGES data will be completed after Promundo’s IMAGES Optimisation process.

Table 4.11. Dominates sexual and reproductive choices

Indicators tracking progress towards gender-equitable masculine norms

	Indicators	Country coverage	Year	Data source
Ideal indicators
Legal framework	Number of countries with a legal framework that requires women to have the approval of the father to seek a legal abortion	180	2009-19	SIGI
	Number of countries where the legal framework’s definition of rape covers marital rape	180	2009-19	SIGI
	Number of countries where the domestic violence legislation covers sexual abuse	180	2009-19	SIGI
Attitudes	Percentage of the population believing that a woman is not justified in proposing condom use	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population disagreeing that men and women should decide together whether they want to have children, when and how many	-	-	-
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: If a husband/partner provides financially, his wife is obliged to have sex with him whenever he wants	4	2015-17	IMAGES
	Percentage of the population agreeing with the following statement: In my community, most people believe that if a husband/partner provides financially, his wife is obliged to have sex with him whenever he wants	-	-	-
	Percentage of women and men agreeing with the following statement: I think a woman cannot refuse to have sex with her husband	6	2013	UN multi-country study Asia-Pacific
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Percentage of women declaring not using contraception or accessing family planning because of their husband’s/partner’s refusal	2	2020	SIGI Country Studies
	Percentage of women declaring having refused sexual intercourse with their husband/partner without facing adverse consequences	-	-	-
	Percentage of women reporting that they took the decision about whether and how many children to have together with their husband/partner	-	-	-
Available indicators
Legal framework	-	-	-	-
Attitudes	Percentage of women and men reporting that a woman is justified in refusing to have sexual intercourse with her husband if: she knows he has sex with other women; he has a sexually transmitted disease; she has recently given birth; she is tired or not in the mood	65, 50, 36, 78	Various years	DHS
	Percentage of women and men reporting that a wife is justified in asking that her husband use a condom if she knows that he has a sexually transmitted disease	60	2003-18	DHS
	Percentage of the population finding it unacceptable for a woman to refuse sexual intercourse with her partner	17	2021	Focus 2030 and Women Deliver
	Percentage of men agreeing with the following statement: If a husband provides financially, his wife is obliged to have sex with him whenever he wants	4	2015-17	IMAGES
	Percentage of women and men who agree that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife if she refuses to have sex with him	70	1999-2018	DHS
	Percentage of men reporting that they would be outraged if their wife asked them to use a condom	5	2011	IMAGES
Consequences for women’s empowerment	Percentage of respondents reporting that the husband has the final say on the use of contraception [*]	11	Various years	IMAGES
	Percentage of women with an unmet need for family planning	78	1990-2018	DHS

Note UN multi-country study Asia-Pacific refers to the UN Multi-Country Study on Men and Violence in Asia and the Pacific which has data that cover six urban/rural areas. Data on this indicator marked with [*] have been collected in ten countries, using slightly different wording. Information on IMAGES data will be completed after Promundo’s IMAGES Optimisation process.

Conclusion

By identifying ten norms of restrictive masculinities and outlining indicators to measure them, this publication aims to pinpoint new avenues to promote women’s empowerment. Indeed, promoting women’s empowerment requires that restrictive masculinities be systematically addressed and measured as hidden drivers of gender inequality. As a starting point on the path to measurement, Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 identified and described ten norms of restrictive masculinities. With these ten norms identified, Chapter 4 has outlined lists of indicators that can be used to measure these norms by accounting for legal frameworks, attitudes and the associated practices that lead to serious consequences for women’s empowerment. By including these three types of indicators, efforts to measure these norms can reveal how widely accepted restrictive masculinities are within a population as a starting point for efforts to transform these restrictive masculinities into gender-equitable alternatives.

Measuring masculine norms can support evidence-based policy making for transformation. The ability to measure masculine norms can aid evidence-based policy making by identifying the most important norms to be urgently addressed and, over time, to measure progress in changing these norms into more gender-equitable masculinities. Measuring how masculine norms change over time can provide evidence regarding the effectiveness of policies and interventions aimed at transforming restrictive masculinities into gender-equitable ones. With the data for each of the ideal indicators listed in the tables in this chapter, it would be possible to construct a conceptual framework to measure the current status of masculine norms at the national, regional and international levels. This framework can guide efforts to systematically analyse masculine norms which, in turn, can accelerate gender equality by identifying which norms are barriers to change and demonstrating the ways that gender equality benefits all people.