Having access to publicly organised and subsidised language training is for many migrants a critical condition for learning the language of their new country of residence. Where immigrants, and new arrivals in particular, are ineligible to participate in public language programmes, they may find it difficult to identify adequate and affordable learning options in their area, which in turn may delay their integration. Moreover, denying certain groups the right to participate in publicly arranged and subsidised language programmes may signal to those migrants that their integration into the host country is not desired. Recognising this, many publicly funded language programmes in OECD countries are gradually opening to a growing number of new arrivals, including asylum seekers and intra-EU migrants in some cases.
Language Training for Adult Migrants
1. Ensure access to language training, including for settled migrants
WHAT and WHY?
WHO?
Public language training programmes should be open to all immigrants in need who are expected to remain in the country. This includes long-term residents with limited proficiency in the host-country language – independent of whether or not they are looking for a job and are eligible to receive benefits. Reunited family members and resettled refugees are important target groups in this regard. New arrivals, who may initially come on a temporary permit, should also have access. In addition, an increasing number of countries, such as Germany and the United Kingdom, have opened language programmes to nationals and made them obligatory for unemployed working-age adults with limited language skills.
HOW?
Establishing a right to participate in language training for all immigrant adults in need who are expected to remain in the country is a crucial first step to encourage successful economic and social integration. To date, most OECD countries grant legal access to public language training programmes to all legally resident foreigners (see Table 1.1). Portugal makes language training available to all migrants with a pending residency or asylum application, and in the United States, many language programmes are available to adults regardless of visa status. Most programmes in Western European countries, with some exceptions such as France, Norway, and Spain, are now open to both EU and non-EU citizens. However, a lack of information or awareness about available learning options sometimes prevents potential learners from participating (see Lesson 2). Mainstreaming the supply of language courses and fully integrating them into other training programmes, such as Active Labour Market Policies (ALMPs), is a way to make sure that language training is proposed to all eligible immigrant adults, facilitating their participation. Australia, Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, Denmark, Finland, France, the Netherlands and Norway are among the OECD countries that have established dedicated policies aimed at including language training in mainstream services to immigrants, albeit to varying degrees.
Additionally, a long eligibility period (see Table 1.2) will help governments reach a greater number of migrants. Such prolonged periods are designed to recognise that those who access work earlier may be less likely to put aside time for language learning, but that it may still be important for their professional advancement and long-term integration.
Table 1.1. Eligibility to publicly (co-) financed language training for migrants in OECD countries, 2020 or latest available year
|
Migrants with refugee status and beneficiaries of subsidiary protection |
Migrants benefitting from other forms of protection |
Newly arrived adult family migrants |
Newly arrived labour migrants |
Longer-term residents |
EU countries only: Newly arrived EU citizens |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Australia |
Yes |
Yes (if they hold an eligible visa) |
Yes (if they hold an eligible visa) |
Yes |
Yes (if they hold an eligible visa and register within 6 months of receiving this visa) |
/ |
|
Austria |
Yes |
No |
Yes (if labour market access is granted) |
No |
Yes (via PES if registered as un-employed, but no legal entitlement) |
Yes (via PES if registered as un-employed, but no legal entitlement) |
|
Belgium |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Canada |
Yes |
Yes (if they maintain permanent resident status) |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes (until acquisition of citizenship) |
/ |
|
Chile |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
/ |
|
Colombia |
/ |
/ |
/ |
/ |
/ |
/ |
|
Czech Republic |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
|
Denmark |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Estonia |
Yes |
/ |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Finland |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
No (except ESF-funded on-the‑job, language training for migrant workers or in the case of state‑ or municipally-funded programmes) |
No (although unemployment benefits are available for those who study Finnish or Swedish) |
Yes |
|
France |
Yes |
/ |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
No |
|
Germany |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Greece |
Yes (not systematic) |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
/ |
|
Hungary |
Not systematic but some funded by ERF and Ministry of Interior) |
Yes, for migrants with temp. protection under DIR 2001/55/EC |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
|
Iceland |
/ |
/ |
/ |
/ |
/ |
/ |
|
Ireland |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Israel |
No |
No |
Yes (if they hold new immigrant status) |
Yes (if they hold new immigrant status) |
No |
No |
|
Italy |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Japan |
Yes (Convention refugees and certain resettled refugees, who are actively engaged in job-search) |
No |
Yes (family of nationals, perm + long-term residents and refugees in active job-search) |
No |
Yes (if actively engaged in job-search) |
/ |
|
Korea |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
/ |
|
Latvia |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Lithuania |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
No |
/ |
|
Luxembourg |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Mexico |
Yes |
No |
No |
No |
No |
/ |
|
Netherlands |
Yes (loan-based but those who pass the exam within the established period do not have to pay it back) |
Yes (loan-based but those who pass the exam within the established period do not have to pay it back) |
Yes (loan-based) |
Yes (loan-based) |
Yes (loan-based) |
Yes (loan-based) |
|
New Zealand |
Yes |
Yes (if they hold New Zealand residence) |
Depends on sponsor (Yes for holders of a residence visa; No for accompanying family of new residents who must cover entire costs) |
Yes (if they hold a residence visa) |
Yes |
/ |
|
Norway |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
No (obliged to pay fee to provider to participate in language training) |
Yes |
No |
|
Poland |
Yes (in the framework of the integration programme) |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
|
Portugal |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Slovak Republic |
Yes |
/ |
No (but free language courses organised by the IOM in Bratislava and Košice) |
No (but free language courses organised by the IOM in Bratislava and Košice) |
No (but free language courses organised by the IOM in Bratislava and Košice) |
No (but free language courses organised by the IOM in Bratislava and Košice) |
|
Slovenia |
Yes |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
|
Spain |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
|
Sweden |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Switzerland |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Turkey |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
/ |
|
United Kingdom |
Yes (ESOL and DCLG community programme) |
Yes (ESOL and DCLG community programme) |
Yes (eligible to DCLG community programme but not a target group; eligible to ESOL training but only after 3 years of residence for family members of labour migrants) |
No (but eligible to ESOL training if they have been resident for at least 3 years) |
Yes (ESOL and DCLG community programme) |
Yes (eligible to ESOL if they have been resident for at least 3 years; eligible to DCLG community programme but not a target group) |
|
United States |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
/ |
Note: n.a. = information not available. This information is based on a 2017 questionnaire and 2020 updates by member countries.
Source: OECD questionnaire on language training for adult migrants 2017.
Table 1.2. Eligibility to publicly (co-) financed language training for migrants in OECD countries, 2020 or latest available year
|
|
Conditions for eligibility other than the migrant’s category |
Time limit after which migrants are no longer eligible |
|---|---|---|
|
Australia |
Having less than vocational English |
Effective April 2021, migrants arriving after 1 October 2020 must:
Applications for extensions are possible within a 10-year limit. Migrants in Australia prior to 1 October are not subject to time limitations for commencing or completing AMEP tuition. |
|
Austria |
|
|
|
Belgium |
No |
No |
|
Canada i |
No (but all eligible Settlement Program clients must be of legal age to leave school within their applicable province/territory) |
No (acquisition of citizenship ends eligibility for the Settlement Program; ineligible clients may be eligible for provincially- and territorially-funded services) |
|
Chile |
/ (no language training is provided) |
/ |
|
Colombia |
/ |
/ |
|
Czech Republic |
No |
|
|
Denmark |
No |
|
|
Estonia |
No |
|
|
Finland |
Mainly provided to unemployed migrants who are registered |
|
|
France |
Insufficient French language skills (below level A1)ii |
1 year from signing the integration contract (CIR) |
|
Germany |
|
No |
|
Greece |
No, other than having the necessary legal residence documents |
No |
|
Hungary |
No |
No (except for migrants benefitting from temporary protection: 24 months from status recognition) |
|
Iceland |
||
|
Ireland |
Priority is given to those in need of Basic English language skills to a level of functional competency |
No |
|
Israel |
|
18 months within reception of new immigrant status (24 months for immigrants entitled to income support) |
|
Italy |
No |
30 credits in 2 years under Integration Agreement |
|
Japan |
|
No (but resettled refugees are expected to complete language training within 6 months of arrival) |
|
Korea |
No |
No |
|
Latvia |
Asylum seekers, refugees, and their subsidiaries have no additional criteria. Being registered as unemployed and/or seeking employment is a criteria for other migrant categories |
No |
|
Lithuania |
No |
15 – 36 months depending on migrants’ vulnerability |
|
Luxembourg |
|
2 years from signing the welcome and integration contract |
|
Mexico |
No |
No |
|
Netherlands |
Having insufficient income/means to pay for a language course |
|
|
New Zealand |
Holding a residence visa (migrants on temporary visas have to pay an additional fee and accompanying family members of new residents must cover the entire costs themselves) |
No maximum period except some specialist ESOL programmes: 5 years for intensive literacy and numeracy ESOL; 3 years for fee‑free programmes for refugees studying at Level 3+ ESOL; 5 years for accompanying family members of new residents) |
|
Norway |
Yes |
|
|
Poland |
Receiving social assistance |
12 months (for refugees) |
|
Portugal |
All legally resident adult immigrants (aged 18 years and older) are eligible. Since August 2020, eligibility has been extended to those who do not yet have legal status, provided a residence permit or asylum application has been submitted and the procedure is pending. A Social Security Identification Number must have been allocated. |
No |
|
Slovak Republic |
Staying in the asylum centre (for refugees and persons with subsidiary protection) |
As long as they reside in asylum centre (for refugees and persons with subsidiary protection status) |
|
Slovenia |
No (except from holding a valid residence permit) |
|
|
Spain |
No |
No |
|
Sweden |
Lacking basic knowledge of Swedish |
No |
|
Switzerland |
No (but priority is given to people with social disadvantages and special needs) |
No |
|
Turkey |
No |
No |
|
United Kingdom |
|
No |
|
United States |
Having another native language than English or living in a family or community where a language other than English is the dominant language |
No |
Notes: n.a. = information not available; See Table 1.1.
a. Unless otherwise indicated, all references to Canada in this publication refer to programming at the federal level and do not represent programming funded by other levels of government.
ii. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), is a guideline used to describe achievements of learners of foreign languages across Europe and, increasingly, in other countries. The CEFR categorises language proficiency in six levels, A1 to C2, defined by “can do” descriptors. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference languages/level-descriptions.
Source: OECD questionnaire on language training for adult migrants 2017.