This chapter provides a brief overview of the pervasive issue of violence against women (VAW) in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, highlighting the exacerbating impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. It outlines the report’s structure, which is organised around the OECD three-pillar approach to a whole-of-state framework for addressing VAW, as well as its methodology.
Tackling Violence Against Women in the Middle East and North Africa
1. Addressing violence against women in the Middle East and North Africa: Overview
Abstract
1.1. Context
Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was estimated that one out of three married women in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) had experienced physical and sexual forms of abuse by an intimate partner in the course of their life (WHO, 2013[1]). This estimate is likely a conservative one since many cases of violence go unreported for a variety of reasons (OECD, 2023[2]). In the last decade, MENA countries have demonstrated a growing commitment to recognising the magnitude of this issue and taking efforts to address it, mainly through the adoption of domestic legal frameworks and national strategies to prevent and prosecute various forms of violence against women (VAW).
Globally, and particularly in the MENA region1 (OECD, 2020[3]), the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated VAW (OECD, 2022[4]) (OECD, 2023[5]) (OECD, 2021[6]). A United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (UNESCWA) report has found that increased instances of domestic violence were reported throughout the MENA region, accompanied with lower levels of safety. For example, in Lebanon, 57% of women and girls reported feeling less safe in their communities since the start of the pandemic (UNESCWA, 2020[7]). The Arab Barometer, a nonpartisan research network active in the MENA region, estimated that citizens perceive that VAW in their community has increased since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. For instance, 63% of respondents to a population-based survey perceived increase in abuse and/or VAW in Tunisia, followed by 41% of respondents in Algeria and Morocco, respectively, while the perceived surge of VAW in Jordan was 27%, and 20% in Lebanon (Arab Barometer, 2020[8]). In Jordan, the Family Protection Department announced a 33% increase in reported domestic violence cases during the first month of the lockdown (OECD, 2020[3]). The strict and prolonged confinement measures put in place to contain the outbreak, especially in its early stages, have had pernicious effects on women due to economic insecurity, forced coexistence with abusers, disrupted support services, and reduced access to law enforcement services. While global, these risk factors are exacerbated in the MENA region by the restrictive social norms and legislations that see men as heads of household and responsible for the family income. Under such a configuration, economic obstacles and pressure preventing men from fulfilling their social roles as providers may heighten frustrations and risks of violence toward women and girls. In conflict-affected MENA countries, where institutional capacity and services were already limited, the negative impact was multiplied (Maloney, 2020[9]). Overall, governments were insufficiently prepared to swiftly implement contingency strategies to protect women from violence in the emergency context installed by the pandemic. In its short-term consequences, the pandemic has thus jeopardised the progress achieved by MENA countries toward the implementation of the goals outlined in the UN’s Sustainable Development Agenda for 2030.
However, amidst these setbacks, the urgency triggered by the global pandemic has also compelled governments in the MENA region to take more decisive and innovative action to protect women from violence. This momentum has helped instigate the creation of policies and services to mitigate abuse, such as the establishment of additional shelters for survivors. Good practices have emerged out of the crisis and outlived it, owing to the adaptability and resilience of service providers. The COVID-19 crisis can thus offer a small window for tackling underlying discriminatory legal frameworks, social norms and other barriers holding back progress toward gender equality across the region.
1.2. Overview
This report provides an overview of some MENA countries’ efforts to develop more holistic VAW responses, while assessing the gaps that hinder progress towards achieving lives free from violence.
VAW is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon that manifests in multiple and interlinked forms (OECD, 2023[5]), including intimate partner violence, domestic violence2, sexual abuse, exploitation and harassment, stalking, technology-facilitated violence, female genital mutilation, forced marriage, “honour”-based killings (OECD, 2023[5]), human trafficking, workplace violence, among others. This report, however, focuses specifically on domestic violence, primordially in physical forms.
The report provides multifaceted guidance to MENA countries on how to improve VAW-responses, including in emergency contexts such as pandemics. The analysis and structure of this report emanate from the OECD’s three-pillar approach to addressing VAW (OECD, 2021[10]) (Figure 1.1). The framework recognises VAW as the result of a combination of unequal power structures and deeply rooted cultural norms that legitimise and fuel VAW. As such, this report is based and organised around a three-pillar approach, which seeks to engage countries to act holistically in enacting VAW frameworks:
The first section focuses on the systems required to establish a whole-of-state approach to addressing VAW. The Systems pillar (Pillar I) is based on effective structures and systems to appropriately respond to VAW and proposes solutions to systemic failures to prevent VAW. Crucial governance components within this pillar may involve: developing comprehensive laws and policies that address various forms of violence and discrimination against women; clearly delineating the roles and responsibilities of government actors and relevant stakeholders in implementing VAW strategies, policies, and programmes; and establishing internal and external accountability mechanisms to monitor the progress of VAW policies (OECD, 2021[10]).
The second section focuses on promoting a victim/survivor-centred governance and service culture through capacity-building and co-ordination efforts, along with enhancing detection and prevention (Pillar II). This pillar aims to combat cultural biases, norms, and practices that fuel VAW and hinder efficient service provision to victims/survivors’ needs. Essential governance components may involve: training public service providers who interact directly with victims and survivors; facilitating co-ordinated responses from the community and different government ministries; providing funding for essential resources like shelters and programmes addressing VAW; and involving men and boys in confronting harmful attitudes and behaviours that contribute to VAW (OECD, 2021[10]).
The last section tackles victims/survivors’ access to justice services and mechanisms (Pillar III) and respond to failures in the justice system hindering positive measures to facilitate victims/survivors’ access to justice and to fully recognise and address their complex needs. This ensures that victims/survivors receive support and protection from the judicial and law enforcement systems. In doing so, it facilitates their access to justice and holds perpetrators accountable. Essential aspects of governance within this pillar involve: developing justice-related services and procedures that are sensitive to the needs and perspectives of victims and survivors; criminalising VAW and imposing penalties on offenders; and examining cases of femicide/feminicide to rectify avoidable shortcomings and insufficient responses by the justice system (OECD, 2021[10]).
1.3. Methodology
This report provides policy recommendations addressed to countries in MENA region1. It mainly builds on the results of the OECD 2022 Survey on Strengthening Governance and Victim/survivor-centric Approaches to end Violence Against Women (VAW) in MENA Countries conducted between July and September 20223.
The qualitative survey aimed at identifying existent governmental approaches to tackle VAW, including in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. It sought to locate and identify gaps in MENA countries’ efforts to adopt victim/survivor-centric approaches, with the goal of improving justice and accountability for victims/survivors of violence. The survey was circulated among eight countries of the MENA region and received responses from seven countries: Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, the Palestinian Authority, and Tunisia.
The survey answers are supported and complemented by data from the Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) 2023, which covers 19 MENA countries, as well as by a review of publicly available sources of information pertaining to MENA countries’ VAW responses, including national policies and legislations, reports by non-governmental organisations, policy briefs by the United Nations, national and regional surveys. Preliminary findings of this report were shared during the meeting of the MENA-OECD Platform on Gender Mainstreaming, Governance and Leadership in September 2022, during which MENA stakeholders provided additional valuable inputs.
References
[8] Arab Barometer (2020), Covid-19 Magnifies Pre-existing gender inequalities in MENA, https://www.arabbarometer.org/2020/12/covid-19-magnifies-pre-existing-gender-inequalities-in-mena/ (accessed on 4 September 2023).
[9] Maloney, M. (2020), Sexual violence in armed conflict: can we prevent a COVID-19 backslide?, International Committee of the Red Cross Blogs, https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2020/11/25/sexual-violence-covid-19-backslide/.
[5] OECD (2023), Breaking the Cycle of Gender-based Violence: Translating Evidence into Action for Victim/Survivor-centred Governance, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b133e75c-en.
[2] OECD (2023), Supporting Lives Free from Intimate Partner Violence: Towards Better Integration of Services for Victims/Survivors, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/d61633e7-en.
[4] OECD (2022), Report on the Implementation of the OECD Gender Recommendations, https://www.oecd.org/mcm/Implementation-OECD-Gender-Recommendations.pdf.
[10] OECD (2021), Eliminating Gender-based Violence: Governance and Survivor/Victim-centred Approaches, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/42121347-en.
[6] OECD (2021), Towards gender-inclusive recovery, https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/towards-gender-inclusive-recovery-ab597807/.
[3] OECD (2020), COVID-19 crisis in the MENA region: impact on gender equality and policy responses, https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/view/?ref=134_134470-w95kmv8khl&title=COVID-19-crisis-in-the-MENA-region-impact-on-gender-equality-and-policy-responses.
[7] UNESCWA (2020), Violence against women and girls and Covid-19 in the Arab region, https://archive.unescwa.org/sites/www.unescwa.org/files/publications/files/violence-against-women-girls-covid-19-arab-region-english_0.pdf.
[1] WHO (2013), Global and Regional Estimates of Violence Against Women: Prevalence and Health Effects of Intimate Partner Violence and Non-Partner Sexual Violence, WHO, https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241564625.
Notes
← 1. For the purposes of this report, the MENA region will refer to the governments of the MENA-OECD Initiative on Governance and Competitiveness for Development. The MENA-OECD Initiative covers Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestinian Authority, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
← 2. Domestic violence refers to “all acts of physical, sexual, psychological or economic harm that occurs within the family or domestic unit, or between former or current spouses or partners, whether or not the perpetrator shares or has shared the same residence with the person experiencing violence”. Domestic violence is a broader definition than intimate partner violence, as it may involve non-partner offenders and victims (e.g., fathers, uncles, brothers). Intimate partner violence refers to “any act of physical, sexual, psychological or economic violence that occurs between former or current spouses or partners, whether or not the perpetrator shares or has shared the same residence with the victim”. This term focuses exclusively on violence between former or current spouses, but acknowledges the possibility that the offender and victim/survivor are not or had not been cohabitating (OECD, 2023[2]).
← 3. Tunisia provided responses to the questionnaire in October 2023.