Constructing Scenarios for the Future of Teaching in Flanders

Annex A. Persona indicators

Additional research from Flanders has been used to construct professional traits of of the Flemish teacher personas, which are listed below.

Further research used to construct José and Hilde

 

Category	Source
Age	29% of Flemish educational staff are aged 50+ (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[1]).
Gender	88% of primary education staff in Flanders are female, 12% are male (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[1]).
Motivation	Flemish teachers are strongly intrinsically motivated to enter the profession (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]), especially after teacher education (Boone, 2013[3]). Primary education teachers draw the greatest motivation from the opportunity to influence the development of children and young people (99%) followed by the opportunity to contribute to society (94.0%). In addition, 85% of primary school teachers say they choose the teaching profession because it allows them to help socially disadvantaged people (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Other items identified by Flemish research are the desire to pass on subject knowledge and the appreciation of the practice of teaching in its own (Pauwels et al., 2022[4]). Of the extrinsic motivations, reliable income is a reason for primary teachers to choose the teaching profession (73%), followed by a stable career (69%) (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Pauwels et al. (2022[4]) have also identified “work dynamic”, e.g., having a job with a lot of variation, as a relevant factor.
School culture and support	School culture is an important factor determining the decision for teachers to stay in the profession (Huyge et al., 2009[5]). Support from colleagues and school leadership has a positive effect on teacher retention, while absence of support can be a reason to leave the profession (Mombaers, Vanlommel and Van Petegem, 2020[6]; Struyven et al., 2012[7]; Spruyt et al., 2021[8]) Well-being is positively affected by support from colleagues and the school leader (Aelterman et al., 2007[9]; Commissie van Wijzen, 2023[10]). 96% of Flemish teachers in primary education indicate that they have received feedback (usually from their school leader or colleague teachers) and 70.9% felt it had a positive influence on their teaching practice (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). Furthermore, there is a significant amount of other Flemish and international research pointing to the importance of a good school team and peer support (Backers, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[12]; Vekeman, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[13]; Boyd et al., 2011[14]; Buchanan et al., 2013[15]; Kelchtermans, 2017[16]). According to Backers, Tuytens and Devos (2020[12]), “novice and experienced teachers wish for more support in their classrooms because they currently experience a very high workload and task load” (p. 12), which is highlighted for more experienced teachers by Bogaerts et al (2021[17]).
Working parttime	The percentage of education staff in primary education working parttime has increased from 34% in school year 2015-2016 to 41% in school year 2022-2023 (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[1]). The effects of working parttime can be viewed in both a positive and a negative way. Working parttime can be a solution to reconcile health problems better with work responsibilities but can also lead to ‘a breakdown in slow-motion’ (Spruyt et al., 2021[8]). TALIS 2018 showed no significant difference in primary school teachers experiencing “a lot” of stress between fulltime and parttime working teachers (OECD, 2021[18]). Dutch research in the healthcare sector demonstrated that parttime work can have a negative effect on career opportunities, earning and participation in schooling-related activities, as well as the overall availability of staff, which is an important factor within the Flemish context of a tight labour market ( (Vernet, 2021[19]). However, research has also shown that parttime working can lead to increased well-being among women (Montero and Rau, 2015[20]). Among Dutch primary school teachers, 65% of teachers work parttime to have time to care for children and 97% indicated they found it important that the possibility to work parttime existed (Arbeidsmarktplatform primair onderwijs / Dutch labour market platform primary education, 2019[21]). Research among teachers in Germany has demonstrated that there is no relation between parttime working and increased risk of burnout or health status (Seibt and Kreuzfeld, 2021[22]; Seibt et al., 2011[23]).
Workload	Flemish research which was done in 2018 (Minnen, Verbeylen and Glorieux, 2018[24]) reported that fulltime working primary school teachers in Flanders work an average of 41.2 hours per week when projected onto a full calendar year (including holidays). During teaching weeks, the working time of a fulltime teacher in primary education is 49.5 hours per week. The study also showed that primary school teachers spend 27% of their total working time at home. In TALIS 2018, which was performed around the same time, fulltime Flemish teachers in primary education reported working an average of 44.6 hours during their most recent complete calendar week (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]), which means almost 4 hours difference in working time in comparison to the earlier study. Teachers with less than five years' experience report experiencing more work pressure than those with more than five years' experience. Furthermore, only 12% of the Flemish teachers indicate that their job leaves a lot of space for their personal life (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Flemish research indicates that high workload can be a reason to leave the teaching profession (Struyven and Vanthournout, 2014[25]), especially when perceived support is absent (Struyven et al., 2012[7]). Not surprisingly, administrative workload is related to job satisfaction (Devos et al., 2016[26]). Data suggests educational staff experiencing work stress related problems appear to have been increasing by 10% between 2010 and 2023 (SERV, 2023[27]).
Well-being	In general, teachers are increasingly exposed to emotionally provocative situations that threaten their performance, and well-being (Jennings and Greenberg, 2009[28]; Hellebaut et al., 2023[29]; Tuytens et al., 2021[30]). TALIS 2018 results shows that 31% of Flemish primary education teachers experience ‘a lot’ of stress in their jobs. Stress levels are higher for women and 9% of teachers in primary even state that work has a negative effect on their mental health. On the question "'the advantages of the teaching profession outweigh the disadvantages", 68% of the primary teachers responded positively. This is a decrease of 15 percentage points compared to 2013 (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). Interestingly, TALIS 2018 reveals that the variance between schools is small, indicating that burnout is not necessarily dependent on the school context and this requires an individual approach for each teacher (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2021[31]). It is also worth noting that primary school teachers with less than 5 years of experience indicated experiencing less stress (23%) than those with more than 5 years of teaching experience (32%) (OECD, 2021[18]).
Autonomy on the school level	Flemish teachers experience a high level of autonomy (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). Research suggests teachers find it important that they are involved by their school leader in school decisions and given autonomy in their own classroom practice (Backers, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[12]; De Neve, Devos and Tuytens, 2015[32]; Ladd, 2011[33]).
Self-efficacy	Flemish teachers report a high level of self-efficacy compared to other countries. When comparing to EU-14 countries, Flemish primary teachers score better on 12 out of 13 elements identified by TALIS 2018. However, self-efficacy is lower for starting teachers than more experienced teachers (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Self-efficacy is important, since it is correlated with less stress and more job satisfaction (Devos et al., 2016[26]; Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]) and is a motivating factor for staying in the profession (Mombaers, Vanlommel and Van Petegem, 2020[6]).
Professional development	Compared to their colleagues in other countries, Flemish primary teachers spend fewer hours a week on professional development activities (on average 0.9 hours a week compared to an average of 1.3 hours in EU-5 countries). This is largely in line with other research done on time management of teachers, although differences were found between regular and special education (Minnen, Verbeylen and Glorieux, 2018[24]). Furthermore, teachers experience a lower need for professional development compares to EU-5 colleagues and experience noticeably fewer financial, family, and work-related barriers (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Moreover, Flemish teachers in both education levels experience significantly more support from their employer. The largest obstacle Flemish teachers experience to participating in professional development activities is the difficult combination with the work schedule (44% of primary education teachers reported this) (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). The OECD (2021[34]) noted that increasingly, professionalization has become a formalized aspect of the teaching profession. Additionally, connections between actors within and beyond the education system are contributing to professionalization possibilities. A focus on evidence-informed learning and teaching (Stichting Leerpunt / Learning Point, 2024[35]) and increasing and continued collaboration between schools and higher education is being explored (Willegems, 2020[36]).

Further research used to construct Kato and Yasmine

 

Category	Source
Age	4% of Flemish educational staff are younger than 24 years old (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[1]).
Gender	88% of primary education personnel in Flanders are female, 12% are male (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[1]).
Motivation	Flemish teachers are strongly intrinsically motivated to enter the profession (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]), especially after teacher education (Boone, 2013[3]). Primary education teachers draw the greatest motivation from the opportunity to influence the development of children and young people (99%) followed by the opportunity to contribute to society (94%). In addition, 85% of primary school teachers say they choose the teaching profession because it allows them to help socially disadvantaged people (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Other items identified by Flemish research are the desire to pass on subject knowledge and the appreciation of the practice of teaching in its own (Pauwels et al., 2022[4]). Of the extrinsic motivations, reliable income is a reason for primary teachers to choose the teaching profession (73%), followed by a stable career (69%) (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Pauwels et al. (2022[4]) have also identified “work dynamic”, e.g., having a job with a lot of variation, as a relevant factor.
Teacher attrition	About one quarter (25%) of primary education teachers who started working in 2010-2011 has left the teaching profession within 5 years. This rate was even higher in lower secondary education (44%) (Flemish Parliament, 2018[37]). In general, research suggests that teachers leave the profession most often at the beginning (and the end) of their careers (Spruyt et al., 2021[8]).
Induction	Flemish, but also international research has highlighted the relatively large attrition rates prevalent with starting teachers and the need to address this (Thomas et al., 2019[38]; Shanks et al., 2020[39]; Struyven and Vanthournout, 2014[25]). This is, in part, due to the so called ‘praxis shock’; the shift from limited responsibilities as an intern, but near total responsibility for all aspects of teaching after graduating (European Schoolnet, 2020[40]). TALIS highlighted this is especially true for teachers in primary and lower secondary education starting their career in multicultural schools (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Research among Flemish primary school teachers highlighted the value of having professional, emotional and social collegial support networks (Thomas et al., 2019[38]). Having an induction phase makes it more likely for teachers to keep working and developing in their schools (De Witte, De Cort and Gambi, 2023[41]). Having mentors, and a well-defined HR strategy for induction on the school level was found to be important (Flamand et al., 2024[42]). From September 2019 onwards, induction has been an obligation for the schools to organise for teachers who start working (OECD, 2021[34]).
Workload	Flemish research which was done in 2018 (Minnen, Verbeylen and Glorieux, 2018[24]) reported that fulltime working primary school teachers in Flanders work an average of 41.2 hours per week when projected onto a full calendar year (including holidays). During teaching weeks, the working time of a fulltime teacher in primary education is 49.5 hours per week. The study also showed that primary school teachers work about 27% of their total working time at home. In TALIS 2018, which was performed around the same time, fulltime Flemish teachers in primary education reported working an average of 44.6 hours during their most recent complete calendar week (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]), which would mean a than reported in the earlier study. Teachers with less than five years' experience report experiencing more work pressure than those with more than five years' experience. Furthermore, only 12% of the Flemish teachers indicate that their job leaves a lot of space for their personal life (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Flemish research indicates that high workload can be a reason to leave the teaching profession (Struyven and Vanthournout, 2014[25]), especially when perceived support is absent (Struyven et al., 2012[7]). Not surprisingly, administrative workload is related to job satisfaction (Devos et al., 2016[26]). Data suggests educational staff experiencing work stress related problems appear to have been increasing by 10% between 2010 and 2023 (SERV, 2023[27]).
Well-being	In general, teachers are increasingly exposed to emotionally provocative situations that threaten their performance, and well-being (Jennings and Greenberg, 2009[28]; Hellebaut et al., 2023[29]; Tuytens et al., 2021[30]). TALIS 2018 results shows that 31% of Flemish primary education teachers experience ‘a lot’ of stress in their jobs. Stress levels are higher for women and 9% of teachers in primary even state that work has a negative effect on their mental health. On the question "'the advantages of the teaching profession outweigh the disadvantages" 68% of the primary teachers responded positively. This is a decrease of 15 percentage points compared to 2013 (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). Interestingly, TALIS 2018 reveals that the variance between schools is small, indicating that burnout is not necessarily dependent on the school context and this requires an individual approach for each teacher (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2021[31]). It is also worth noting that primary school teachers with less than 5 years of experience indicated experiencing less stress (23%) than those with more than 5 years of teaching experience (32%) (OECD, 2021[18]).
School culture and support	School culture is an important factor determining the decision for teachers to stay in the profession (Huyge et al., 2009[5]). Support from colleagues and school leadership has a positive effect on teacher retention, while absence of support can be a reason to leave the profession (Mombaers, Vanlommel and Van Petegem, 2020[6]; Struyven et al., 2012[7]; Spruyt et al., 2021[8]) Well-being is positively affected by support from colleagues and the school leader (Aelterman et al., 2007[9]; Commissie van Wijzen, 2023[10]). 96% of Flemish teachers in primary education indicate that they have received feedback and 71% felt it had a positive influence on their teaching practice (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). Furthermore, there is a significant amount of other Flemish and international research pointing to the importance of a good school team and peer support (Backers, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[12]; Vekeman, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[13]; Boyd et al., 2011[14]; Buchanan et al., 2013[15]; Kelchtermans, 2017[16]; Carver-Thomas and Darling-Hammond, 2017[43]). According to Backers, Tuytens and Devos (2020[12]), “novice and experienced teachers wish for more support in their classrooms because they currently experience a very high workload and task load” (p. 12). The necessity of support within the school is also recognized by teacher educators (De Witte et al., 2023[44]).
Self-efficacy	Flemish teachers report a high level of self-efficacy compared to other countries. When comparing to EU-14 countries, Flemish lower secondary teachers score better on 12 out of 13 elements identified by TALIS 2018. However, self-efficacy is lower for starting teachers than more experienced teachers (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Flemish teachers report a high level of self-efficacy compared to other countries. When comparing to EU-14 countries, Flemish primary teachers score better on 12 out of 13 elements identified by TALIS 2018. However, self-efficacy is lower for starting teachers than more experienced teachers (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Self-efficacy is important, since it is correlated with less stress and more job satisfaction (Devos et al., 2016[26]; Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]).
Demoralisation	Emotional and personal engagement is identified as an important element of both teacher work but also teacher self-understanding (Kelchtermans, 2009[45]). This can create tension: the idea that teaching practices in a school are not in line with what a teacher thinks consists of “good” teaching and that their teaching methods do not contribute to improving social justice goals. Research in Flemish secondary education has identified demoralisation as a push factor out of the profession (Amitai and Van Houtte, 2022[46]).
Autonomy	When compared internationally, Flemish teachers indicate they have a significant degree of autonomy. For example, they report a relatively high degree of autonomy in teaching and lesson planning compared to other OECD education systems (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). This is also the case when compared to other sectors in Flanders (SERV, 2023[27]). Research suggests having autonomy is a reason to stay in the profession (Mombaers, Vanlommel and Van Petegem, 2020[6]). Male teachers and teachers with more than five years' experience indicate that they experience more autonomy than female teachers and teachers with less experience (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]).
Parental involvement	79% of Flemish school leaders report that parents/guardians are involved in school activities to “a certain extent” or “much”. On average, primary education teachers spend 1.6 hours a week on communication and cooperation with parents/guardians (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). However, the increasing parental involvement can have a negative impact on teachers’ autonomy (Spruyt et al., 2023[47]) and starting teachers are not always prepared for relationships with their students’ parents (Willemse et al., 2015[48]). TALIS 2018 results suggest that addressing parent or guardian concerns was reported as a source of stress by a 16% of primary teachers in Flanders (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). Finally, research in the Netherlands further suggests that sometimes teachers think it is difficult to involve parents in the decision-making process, and therefore they chose not to do so, or at least not enough (Leenders et al., 2019[49]).
Being valued by society	TALIS 2018 highlighted that only 31% of Flemish primary teachers believe that teaching is valued by society, down from 45% in 2013 (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). However, it is not clear yet whether perceived status really impacts the decision to leave the profession (Mombaers, Vanlommel and Van Petegem, 2020[6]). Research from the Netherlands among secondary school students highlighted that they feel the image of the teacher can be improved by increasing salaries, reducing class size and increasing career opportunities and more intellectually challenging work (Bahlmann, Eustatia and Pillen-Warmerdam, 2018[50]).

Further research used to construct Mark and Marleen

 

Category	Source
Age	29% of Flemish educational staff are aged 50+, 7% of Flemish education staff are 60+ (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[1])
Gender	64% of education staff in secondary education is female, 36% are male (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[1]).
Motivation	Flemish teachers are strongly intrinsically motivated to enter the profession (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]), especially after teacher education (Boone, 2013[3]). Lower secondary teachers draw the greatest motivation from the opportunity to influence the development of children and young people (97%) followed by the opportunity to contribute to society (92%). In addition, 77% of lower secondary school teachers say they choose the teaching profession because it allows them to help socially disadvantaged people (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Other items identified by Flemish research are the desire to pass on subject knowledge and the appreciation of the practice of teaching in its own (Pauwels et al., 2022[4]). Of the extrinsic motivations, reliable income is a reason for lower secondary teachers to choose the teaching profession (75%), followed by a stable career (69%) (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Pauwels et al. (2022[4]) have also identified “work dynamic”, e.g., having a job with a lot of variation, as a relevant factor. Research from Flanders as well as the Netherlands has suggested older teachers might remain motivated to keep working even after retirement when organisational support and possibilities for a change of work role are available in their school (Bal and Visser, 2011[51]; Bogaerts, Borzée and Vancraeyveldt, 2021[17]).
Being valued by society	TALIS 2018 highlighted that only 31% of Flemish primary teachers believe that teaching is valued by society, down from 45% in 2013 (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). However, it is not clear yet whether perceived status really impacts the decision to leave the profession (Mombaers, Vanlommel and Van Petegem, 2020[6]). Research from the Netherlands among secondary school students highlighted that they feel the image of the teacher can be improved by increasing salaries, reducing class size and increasing career opportunities and more intellectually challenging work (Bahlmann, Eustatia and Pillen-Warmerdam, 2018[50]).
Salary	Up to three quarters (73%) of Flemish lower secondary education teachers indicated they are satisfied with the salary they receive for their work. Female lower secondary education teachers are more satisfied with their salary than their male counterparts (75% versus 67%) (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). Teachers’ actual salaries relative to earnings of tertiary educated workers are, on average, lower (OECD, 2023[52]).
Working parttime	The percentage of education staff in secondary education working parttime has increased slightly from 35% in school year 2015-2016 to 37% in school year 2022-2023 (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[1]). The effects of working parttime can be viewed in both a positive and a negative way. Working parttime can be a solution to reconcile health problems better with work responsibilities but can also lead to a ‘breakdown in slow-motion’ (Spruyt et al., 2021[8]). TALIS 2018 showed no significant difference in primary school teachers experiencing “a lot” of stress between fulltime and parttime working teachers (OECD, 2021[18]). Dutch research in the healthcare sector demonstrated that parttime work can have a negative effect on career opportunities, earning and participation in schooling-related activities, as well as the overall availability of staff, which is an important factor within the Flemish context of a tight labour market ( (Vernet, 2021[19]). However, research has also shown that parttime working can lead to increased well-being among women (Montero and Rau, 2015[20]). Among Dutch primary school teachers, 65% of teachers work parttime to have time to care for children and 97% indicated they found it important that the possibility to work parttime existed (Arbeidsmarktplatform primair onderwijs / Dutch labour market platform primary education, 2019[21]). Research among teachers in Germany has demonstrated that there is no relation between parttime working and increased risk of burnout or health status (Seibt and Kreuzfeld, 2021[22]; Seibt et al., 2011[23]).
Infrastructure	Although in general education is expected to adapt to changes in society, one on eight of the Flemish school buildings was built more than 100 years ago and one on four of the school buildings was built before 1950. Of the total education expenses, only 3% is spend on infrastructure in secondary schools in Flanders, which is lower than the European average of 7% (De Witte, 2022[53]). This is problematic since poor infrastructure in schools can be a reason to leave the profession (Barrett et al., 2018[54]; De Witte, 2022[53]; Tuytens et al., 2021[30]), especially for experienced teachers as it is an effect of many years of frustration being piled up (Amitai and Van Houtte, 2022[46]). At the same time, when the infrastructure meets teachers’ needs, it can be a motivating factor to stay in the profession. Concrete examples of frustrations are “not being able to open windows leading to headaches, not having enough technical material for vocational students, not having a playground and fresh air, little space for each student, lack of computers, a beamer and screen, a deficient heating system and so on” (Amitai and Van Houtte, 2022, p. 9[46]). Related to digital learning infrastructure, 40% of teachers report that they are lacking digital tools to meet the learning objectives (Vanwynsberghe et al., 2022[55]). TALIS 2018 results suggest that 12% of the school leaders in lower secondary education claim that in order to provide quality education they are “much” hindered by a lack of classrooms and 10% state they are hindered by a lack of physical infrastructure (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Additionally, to the effects on teachers, poor infrastructure also influences student outcomes and lead to high energy costs for schools (De Witte, 2022[53]).
Well-being	In general, teachers are increasingly exposed to emotionally provocative situations that threaten their performance, and well-being (Jennings and Greenberg, 2009[28]; Hellebaut et al., 2023[29]; Tuytens et al., 2021[30]). TALIS 2018 results shows that 27% of Flemish lower secondary education teachers experience ‘a lot’ of stress in their jobs. Stress levels are higher for women and 9% of teachers in lower secondary even state that work has a negative effect on their mental health. On the question "'the advantages of the teaching profession outweigh the disadvantages" 70% of the primary teachers responded positively. This is a decrease of 14 percentage points compared to 2013 (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). Interestingly, TALIS 2018 reveals that the variance between schools is small, indicating that burnout is not necessarily dependent on the school context and this requires an individual approach for each teacher (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2021[31]). Earlier research by Van Droogenbroeck, Spruyt and Vanroelen highlights the relations with students as being most strongly related to burnout (2014[56]).
School culture and support	School culture is an important factor determining the decision for teachers to stay in the profession (Huyge et al., 2009[5]; Tuytens et al., 2021[30]). The more employees in an organisation experience shared norms about what they think is important, the better they can predict what will happen in the organisation. As a result, they experience more confidence and a sense of belonging (Edwards and Cable, 2009[57]; Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2011[58]). Support from colleagues and school leadership has a positive effect on teacher retention, while absence of support can be a reason to leave the profession (Mombaers, Vanlommel and Van Petegem, 2020[6]; Struyven et al., 2012[7]; Spruyt et al., 2021[8]) Well-being is positively affected by support from colleagues and the school leader (Aelterman et al., 2007[9]; Commissie van Wijzen, 2023[10]). 92% of Flemish teachers in lower secondary education indicate that they have received feedback and 59% felt it had a positive influence on their teaching practice (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). Furthermore, there is a significant amount of other Flemish and international research pointing to the importance of a good school team and peer support (Backers, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[12]; Vekeman, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[13]; Boyd et al., 2011[14]; Buchanan et al., 2013[15]; Kelchtermans, 2017[16]). According to Backers, Tuytens and Devos (2020[12]), “novice and experienced teachers wish for more support in their classrooms because they currently experience a very high workload and task load” (p. 12), which is highlighted for more experienced teachers by Bogaerts et al (2021[17]).
Self-efficacy	Flemish teachers report a high level of self-efficacy compared to other countries. When comparing to EU-14 countries, Flemish lower secondary teachers score better on 12 out of 13 elements identified by TALIS 2018. However, self-efficacy is lower for starting teachers than more experienced (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Self-efficacy is important, since it is correlated with less stress and more job satisfaction (Devos et al., 2016[26]; Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]) and is a motivating factor for staying in the profession (Mombaers, Vanlommel and Van Petegem, 2020[6]).
Professional development	Research suggests Flemish teachers who leave the profession attribute this to the limited career options available to them in the education system (Amitai and Van Houtte, 2022[46]; Mombaers, Vanlommel and Van Petegem, 2020[6]). This is interesting, since compared to their colleagues in other systems, Flemish secondary teachers spend fewer hours a week on professional development activities (on average 0.8 hours a week compared to an average of 1.4 hours in EU-14 countries). Flemish research suggests that secondary school teachers spend even fewer time on dedicated professional development activities, although differences are reported in the type of secondary education in which teachers teach (Minnen, Verbeylen and Glorieux, 2018[24]). Furthermore, teachers experience a lower need and noticeably fewer financial, family, and work-related barriers (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). In addition, Flemish teachers in both education levels experience significantly more support from their employer. The largest obstacle Flemish teachers experience to participating in professional development activities is the difficult combination with the work schedule (44% of primary education teachers reported this) (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). The OECD (2021[34]) noted that increasingly, professionalization has become a formalized aspect of the teaching profession. Additionally, connections between actors within and beyond the education system are contributing to professionalization possibilities. A focus on evidence-informed learning and teaching (Stichting Leerpunt / Learning Point, 2024[35]) and increasing and continued collaboration between schools and higher education is being explored (Willegems, 2020[36]).
Task differentiation	Different education professionals leaving their job mentioned about their task package that it was not specific enough and not corresponding to their competences (Mombaers, Vanlommel and Van Petegem, 2020[6]).
Openness to innovation	Teachers in lower secondary education are less open to change (64%) compared to their colleagues in primary education (81%) and in other EU-countries (73%) (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]).
Pupil-teacher ratio	On average, the number of pupils per teacher in Flemish secondary schools is low compared to other OECD countries (9:1) (OECD, 2023[52]; Statistiek Vlaanderen, 2023[59]). While the pupil-teacher ratio reflects the number of full-time pupils versus full-time paid teaching staff, they also include special education and adult education. Additionally, non-class teachers such as task teachers and substitute teachers are included. The ratio therefore does not reflect average class size but is rather an investment indicator (Statistiek Vlaanderen, 2023[59]).

Further research used to construct David and Ella

 

Category	Source
Age	28% of Flemish educational staff are aged between 30 and 39 (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[1]).
Gender	65% of secondary education teachers in Flanders are female, 35% are male (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[1]).
Motivation	Flemish teachers are strongly intrinsically motivated to enter the profession, especially after teacher education (Boone, 2013[3]). Lower secondary teachers draw the greatest motivation from the opportunity to influence the development of children and young people (97%) followed by the opportunity to contribute to society (92%). In addition, 77% of lower secondary teachers say they choose the teaching profession because it allows them to help socially disadvantaged people. However, when looking at schools with more socio-economically disadvantaged students, we see that these schools report a higher percentage on the last two motivations. This is an indicator that teachers in these schools are more socially-altruistically motivated (Siongers et al., 2020[60]). At the same time, teachers consider working in an urban context can be more challenging and negatively impact motivation when adequate support is absent (Backers, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[12]). Recent Flemish research has shown that teachers who work in schools with more disadvantaged students or with more students who speak a different language at home, teacher retention is slightly higher than average (De Witte et al., 2024[61]). Other items identified by Flemish research are the desire to pass on subject knowledge and the appreciation of the practice of teaching in its own (Pauwels et al., 2022[4]). Of the extrinsic motivations, reliable income is the main reason for lower secondary teachers to choose the teaching profession (75%), followed by a stable career (69%) (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Pauwels et al. (2022[4]) have also identified “work dynamic”, e.g., having a job with a lot of variation, as a relevant factor.
Student and teacher diversity	The student population of a school in an urban context tends to be more diverse. This includes first and second-generation migrants, a sizable number of whom do not speak Dutch at home. Additionally, some urban areas contain sizable populations of disadvantaged students (Backers, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[12]). According to TALIS 2018 Flemish schools score higher on every indicator of ethnical diversity than comparison countries (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Furthermore, socioeconomic segregation in schools is higher in Flanders than in other Western countries (Belfi et al., 2015[62]). Interesting given this context, is that the current diversity of the Flemish teacher workforce is very low, while the amount of diversity among students is much higher. In 2019, 37% of children aged between 0 to 17 had a migration background while this is the case only for 6% of the teacher workforce in primary and secondary education (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[63]). It is therefore important to consider how to attract a more diverse teacher workforce, but also how to attract more teachers with a migration background that are currently in schools (Commissie Diversiteit, 2020[64]). De Witte, De Cort and Gambi (2023[41]) mention that further evidence is needed on how to attract a more diverse workforce.
Work experience	TALIS 2018 data shows that teachers in their early career years tend to work in more challenging schools that have higher concentrations of students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes and students with a migrant background (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]).
Self-efficacy	Flemish teachers report a high level of self-efficacy compared to other countries. When comparing to EU-14 countries, Flemish lower secondary teachers score better on 12 out of 13 elements identified by TALIS 2018. However, self-efficacy is lower for starting teachers than more experienced teachers (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Self-efficacy is important, since it is correlated with less stress and more job satisfaction (Devos et al., 2016[26]; Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). According to TALIS 2018 results, teachers have lower levels of self-efficacy in primary schools with a higher share of socio-economically disadvantaged families or more students with a migration background, is lower. However, these results are not observed in secondary (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Nevertheless, when comparing the most socio-economically and ethnically diverse schools with the least diverse schools, some small but significant differences can be observed, such as teacher' efficacy in class management and student engagement (Siongers et al., 2020[60]). Furthermore, when looking at collective teacher efficacy, Flemish research suggests that is negatively correlated with the share of socio-economically disadvantaged students. A mediating factor is the teacher’s perception of social capital in these schools (Belfi et al., 2015[62]).
Learning by doing	According to TALIS 2018, teachers in primary and lower secondary schools with more socio-economically vulnerable and migrant-background students, feel more confident in handling multicultural classes. On the flip side, teachers in schools with fewer such students tend to have lower confidence in managing multicultural settings (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). This is an indicator that in multicultural classes teachers’ higher self-efficacy is a result of “learning-by-doing” (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]).
Readiness	In TALIS 2018, among Flemish teachers in lower secondary only 34% have received training on teaching in a multicultural or multilingual context as part of their formal training. Furthermore, only 17% think they are adequately prepared for it. Flemish teachers score worse than teachers in comparison countries. This is interesting given the more ethnically diverse student population that characterizes Flemish schools (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Not only TALIS 2018, but also other Flemish research also reveals that according to school leaders in urban schools, teachers are not well prepared to work in a metropolitan context (Backers, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[12]).
Class management	TALIS 2018 results suggest that for teachers in more socio-economically or ethnically diverse schools effective teaching time during courses is lower and that they spend more time on class management. Maintaining discipline in the classroom is an important source of stress (Siongers et al., 2020[60]). When comparing the most socio-economically and ethnically diverse schools with the least diverse schools, some small but significant differences can be observed related to teachers’ self-efficacy in class management (Siongers et al., 2020[60]). Other Flemish research has pointed out that problems with class management and authority can be a reason to leave the teaching profession (Huyge et al., 2009[5]). This is of concern since novice teachers have a higher probability starting in more diverse schools (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]) and report that they experience struggles related to diversity and authority (Amitai and Van Houtte, 2022[46]; Backers, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[12]).
Workload	Crucial to handling higher workload is the presence of collegiality, support, and professional collaboration (Backers, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[12]). According to TALIS 2018 the differences in work related stress between diverse and non-diverse schools are small. However, the determinants of stress are clearly dependent on the diversity of the school population. Teachers in more ethnically or socio-economically disadvantaged schools indicate that being intimidated by students and maintaining discipline are important sources of stress (Siongers et al., 2020[60]).
Leadership	A transformational leader is associated with job satisfaction, motivation to teach (Thomas et al., 2018[65]) and teacher retention (Backers, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[12]), and is someone who promotes a culture of continuous learning, communicates clearly a shared vision, holds high expectations, gives teachers support, participation and autonomy (Backers, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[12]; Tuytens, Vekeman and Devos, 2020[66]; Tuytens, Vekeman and Devos, 2021[67]). Also in an urban context, teachers in schools with high teacher retention, reported that they had a “strong leader” with characteristics corresponding to the one of a transformational leader (Backers, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[12]).
Professional development	Compared to their colleagues in other countries, Flemish secondary teachers spend fewer hours a week on professional development activities (on average 0.8 hours a week compared to an average of 1.4 hours in EU-14 countries). Flemish research suggests that secondary school teachers spend even fewer time on dedicated professional development activities, although differences are reported in the type of secondary education in which teachers teach (Minnen, Verbeylen and Glorieux, 2018[24]). Furthermore, teachers experience a lower need and noticeably fewer financial, family, and work-related barriers (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). In addition, Flemish teachers in both education levels experience significantly more support from their employer. The largest obstacle Flemish teachers experience to participating in professional development activities is the difficult combination with the work schedule (44% of primary education teachers reported this) (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). The lower need for professional development activities also relates to teaching in a multicultural or multilingual setting, even if diversity in Flanders is higher than in most other comparison countries and teachers feel not well prepared. However, in schools with more diversity, teachers express a higher need for professionalization opportunities concerning diversity (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). 37% of teachers working in lower secondary education schools with >10% of migrant students indicated that they have a "reasonable" or "great" need for professional development regarding teaching in a multicultural or multilingual setting (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Furthermore, these teachers also effectively engage in more professional development activities that are considered useful in a diverse school context. An example are activities regarding communication with persons with a different cultural background (Siongers et al., 2020[60]). The OECD (2021[34]) noted that increasingly, professionalization has become a formalized aspect of the teaching profession. Additionally, connections between actors within and beyond the education system are contributing to professionalization possibilities. A focus on evidence-informed learning and teaching (Stichting Leerpunt / Learning Point, 2024[35]) and increasing and continued collaboration between schools and higher education is being explored (Willegems, 2020[36]).
School culture and support	School culture is an important factor determining the decision for teachers to stay in the profession (Huyge et al., 2009[5]; Tuytens et al., 2021[30]). Support from colleagues and school leadership has a positive effect on teacher retention, while absence of support can be a reason to leave the profession (Mombaers, Vanlommel and Van Petegem, 2020[6]; Struyven et al., 2012[7]; Spruyt et al., 2021[8]) Well-being is positively affected by support from colleagues and the school leader (Aelterman et al., 2007[9]). 92.4% of Flemish teachers in lower secondary education indicate that they have received feedback and 58.7% felt it had a positive influence on their teaching practice (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). Furthermore, there is a significant amount of other Flemish and international research pointing to the importance of a good school team and peer support (Backers, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[12]; Vekeman, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[13]; Boyd et al., 2011[14]; Buchanan et al., 2013[15]; Kelchtermans, 2017[16]). According to Backers, Tuytens and Devos (2020[12]), “novice and experienced teachers wish for more support in their classrooms because they currently experience a very high workload and task load” (p. 12). Finally, according to TALIS 2018, in more socio-economically disadvantaged schools, 13% of teachers reported having a mentor, while this is only 9% in schools with a higher SES (Siongers et al., 2020[60]). Research from the US points out that schools with higher rates of low-income and/or minority students, but where working conditions are perceived as satisfactory, experience significantly less teacher attrition (Geiger and Pivovarova, 2018[68]).
Induction	Flemish, but also international research has highlighted the relatively large attrition rates prevalent with starting teachers and the need to address this (Thomas et al., 2019[38]; Shanks et al., 2020[39]; Struyven and Vanthournout, 2014[25]). This is, in part, due to the so called ‘praxis shock’; the shift from limited responsibilities as an intern, but near total responsibility for all aspects of teaching after graduating (European Schoolnet, 2020[40]). TALIS highlighted this is especially true for teachers in primary and lower secondary education starting their career in multicultural schools (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Research among Flemish primary school teachers highlighted the value of having professional, emotional and social collegial support networks (Thomas et al., 2019[38]). Having an induction phase makes it more likely for teachers to keep working and developing in their schools (De Witte, De Cort and Gambi, 2023[41]). Having mentors, and a well-defined HR strategy for induction on the school level was found to be important (Flamand et al., 2024[42]). From September 2019 onwards, induction has been an obligation for the schools to organise for teachers who start working (OECD, 2021[34]).

Further research used to construct Pieter and Elke

 

Category	Source
Age	28% of Flemish educational staff are aged between 30 and 39 (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[1]).
Gender	65% of secondary education teachers in Flanders are female, 35% are male (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[1]). Although teaching is a female dominated profession, male teachers more often have years of experience outside of teaching (Spruyt et al., 2021[8]).
Teacher attrition	44% of lower secondary teachers who started working in 2010-2011 has left the teaching profession within 5 years (Flemish Parliament, 2018[37]). In general, research suggests that teachers leave the profession most often at the beginning (and the end) of their careers (Spruyt et al., 2021[8]). Research on second career teachers reveals that many leave the teaching profession quicker than teachers who enter the teaching profession through traditional teacher education and without practical experience outside teaching (Spruyt et al., 2021[8]; Spruyt et al., 2023[47]).
Seniority	Second career teachers can bring up to 10 years of seniority to their teaching job. Since the first of September 2023 second career teachers who entered the profession after September 2020 can bring 15 years of seniority (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[69]).
Induction	Flemish, but also international research has highlighted the relatively large attrition rates prevalent with starting teachers, including second career teachers, and the need to address this (Thomas et al., 2019[38]; Shanks et al., 2020[39]; Struyven and Vanthournout, 2014[25]; Baeten and Meeus, 2016[70]). This is, in part, due to the so called ‘praxis shock’; the shift from limited responsibilities as an intern, but near total responsibility for all aspects of teaching after graduating (European Schoolnet, 2020[40]). TALIS 2018 highlighted this is especially true for teachers in primary and lower secondary education starting their career in multicultural schools ( (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Having an induction phase makes it more likely for teachers to keep working and developing in their schools (De Witte, De Cort and Gambi, 2023[41]). Having mentors, and a well-defined HR strategy for induction on the school level was found to be important (Flamand et al., 2024[42]). For second career teachers, having an orientation phase prior to their teacher education, as well as a form of assessment is recommended (Baeten and Meeus, 2016[70]). From September 2019 onwards, induction has been an obligation for the schools to organise for teachers who start working (OECD, 2021[34]).
Salary	Up to three quarters (73%) of Flemish lower secondary education teachers indicated they are satisfied with the salary they receive for their work. Female lower secondary education teachers are more satisfied with their salary than their male counterparts (76% versus 67%) (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). Teachers’ actual salaries relative to earnings of tertiary educated workers are, on average, lower (OECD, 2023[52]).
Workload	Flemish research which was done in 2018 (Minnen, Verbeylen and Glorieux, 2018[24]) reported that fulltime working secondary school teachers in Flanders work an average of 41.8 hours per week when projected onto a full calendar year (including holidays). During teaching weeks, the working time of a full-time teacher in secondary education is 48.0 hours per week. The study also showed that secondary school teachers spend 41% of these hours working at home. In TALIS 2018, which was performed around the same time, fulltime Flemish teachers in secondary education reported working 39.7 hours per week during their most recent complete calendar work week (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]), which means over 8 hours difference in working time in comparison to the earlier study. Teachers with less than five years' experience report experiencing more work pressure than those with more than five years' experience. Furthermore, only 12% of the Flemish teachers indicate that their job leaves a lot of space for their personal life (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2019[2]). Flemish research indicates that high workload can be a reason to leave the teaching profession (Amitai and Van Houtte, 2022[46]; Struyven and Vanthournout, 2014[25]; Mombaers, Vanlommel and Van Petegem, 2020[6]), especially when perceived support is absent (Struyven et al., 2012[7]). Not surprisingly, administrative workload is related to job satisfaction (Devos et al., 2016[26]). Data suggests work stress related problems appear to have been increasing for educational staff (SERV, 2023[27]). Research on second career teachers highlights that they need additional tailored support when starting as teachers, and be prevented from having workload overriding the process of learning (Tigchelaar, Brouwer and Vermunt, 2010[71]; Ruitenburg and Tigchelaar, 2021[72]).
Job security	For novice Flemish teachers job security can be an ongoing challenge as it can take long before tenure is provided. This can be a big obstacle for teachers who would like to remain in the profession (Amitai and Van Houtte, 2022[46]). It is also identified as a possible reason to leave the profession (Amitai and Van Houtte, 2022[46]; Struyven et al., 2012[7]; Mombaers, Vanlommel and Van Petegem, 2020[6]).
Skills	Second career teachers bring transferable skills (e.g., communication skills), practical expertise and real-world applications to the classroom. However, linking this practical expertise to the classroom may remain a challenge (Ruitenburg and Tigchelaar, 2021[72]; Baeten and Meeus, 2016[70]).
School culture and support	School culture is an important factor determining the decision for teachers to stay in the profession (Huyge et al., 2009[5]). Support from colleagues and school leadership has a positive effect on teacher retention, while absence of support can be a reason to leave the profession (Mombaers, Vanlommel and Van Petegem, 2020[6]; Struyven et al., 2012[7]; Spruyt et al., 2021[8]) Well-being is positively affected by support from colleagues and the school leader (Aelterman et al., 2007[9]). 92% of Flemish teachers in lower secondary education indicate that they have received feedback and 59% felt it had a positive influence on their teaching practice (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2020[11]). Furthermore, there is a significant amount of other Flemish and international research pointing to the importance of a good school team and peer support (Backers, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[12]; Vekeman, Tuytens and Devos, 2020[13]; Boyd et al., 2011[14]; Buchanan et al., 2013[15]; Kelchtermans, 2017[16]). According to Backers, Tuytens and Devos (2020[12]), “novice and experienced teachers wish for more support in their classrooms because they currently experience a very high workload and task load” (p. 12). More specifically, second career teachers also appreciate the support of other second career teachers so they can share experiences, frustrations and successes (Baeten and Meeus, 2016[70]; Wagner and Imanuel-Noy, 2014[73]).
Readiness	Second career teachers are a heterogeneous group of individuals that share a strong intrinsic motivation and possess a wide range of skills acquired in previous working experiences, requiring induction support to be tailored to age, maturity and prior work experience (Ruitenburg and Tigchelaar, 2021[72]). To be able to teach, second career teachers require sufficient field experience (Baeten and Meeus, 2016[70]). Second career teachers tend to get overestimated when starting to work (Baeten and Meeus, 2016[70]). However, second career teachers can have higher resilience which facilitates transition (Wilkins and Comber, 2015[74]). TALIS 2018 results also confirm that second career teachers feel less prepared than teachers with teaching as a first career choice, especially for subject didactics and practical experience (Spruyt et al., 2021[8]).
Pull factor	The pull factor from the private sector might be larger since second career teachers already have experience in a certain domain, making it easier to return to an earlier profession (Amitai and Van Houtte, 2022[46]).
Teacher workforce	Research suggest that second career teachers can increase diversity in the workforce, which is considered an important point of improvement in Flanders (Commissie Diversiteit, 2020[64]). Attracting high quality entrants to the profession has been the goal of initiatives such as “Teach for America” and spread to 61 countries as the “Teach for All” initiative, including Belgium (Wilkins and Comber, 2015[74]; Teach for Belgium, 2023[75]), allowing growth of the teacher workforce and the quality of education by improving leadership and management cultures (Wilkins and Comber, 2015[74]) and in some cases even student outcomes (Boyd et al., 2006[76]). There is a considerable potential of future teachers in Flanders who can be guided into the teaching profession through lateral entry (Spruyt et al., 2021[8]).

Further research used to construct Demir and Noor

 

Category	Source
Age	During TALIS 2018, participating Flemish (lower secondary education) teachers were, on average, 39 years old, which is lower than the average age of teachers across OECD countries and economies who participated in TALIS (44 years old) (OECD, 2019[77]). 29% of Flemish educational staff are aged 50+ and future projections suggest a continuing recruitment need, meaning Flanders will have to renew around at least one in four teachers over the next decade or so (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[63]; Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[1]).
Gender	In the past decades, the percentage of women as part of the total teacher workforce has significantly increased (OECD, 2021[78]). Research among youth in Flanders showed that 47.8% of girls would (very much) like to become a teacher in the future, while this was the case for only 19.6% of boys (Spruyt et al., 2021[8]).
Motivation (teacher students)	Future teachers are likely to be lifelong learners who assume the need to continue to learn as the world rapidly changes. This will also form part of their motivation to become teachers so that they educate people and positively shape community in a changing world. They are likely to have been inspired by their own teachers who were dynamic in their role (Pauwels et al., 2022[4]). Pauwels et al. (2022[4]) describes seven motives that can influence their career choice in teaching: “(a) Subject orientation: wanting to motivate pupils for the subject, wanting to teach pupils new subject content, wanting to help pupils understand the subject better, wanting to make the subject exciting; (b) Work perspective: job security, chance of work, not seeing any other work opportunities, a logical consequence of the choice of study, job reorientation due to dismissal, physical complaints or wanting another profession; (c) Work dynamic: wanting work with a lot of variation, wanting a dynamic job, preferring a lot of autonomy, liking challenges; (d) Educational orientation: like to be in front of an audience, like to guide students, like to talk, like to teach, like to develop material; (e) Pupil orientation: wanting to help pupils, offer pupils opportunities, prepare pupils for further studies or the labour market, show pupils what they are capable of; (f) Idealism: wanting to make a social contribution, help improve the world a little, help shape the next generation, stir pupils’ idealism; (g) Combination possibilities: wanting to work pleasant hours, work close to home, have a good balance with family life, have lots of holidays.” (Pauwels et al., 2022[4]).
Life views	The next generation is likely to work longer than other before them and will likely hold a strong focus on life-work balance, planned wellness activities as well as seek out career opportunities that are meaningful (Ruohotie-Lyhty and Pitkänen-Huhta, 2022[79]) and dynamic.
Career views	Desirable aspects for future teachers might focus on “‘sense of community’, ‘creativeness’, ‘appreciation’, ‘self-fulfillment’ and ‘internationality’” (Ruohotie-Lyhty and Pitkänen-Huhta, 2022, p. 202[79]). Across the OECD, the share of the population aged 65 and over will increase from 18% now to 27% in 2050, and life expectancy gains are projected to further growth in the future. It is envisioned that people will work longer because of this (OECD, 2023[80]) .
Technology use	Flemish children receive their first smartphone at the age of 8 years and four months (Vanwynsberghe et al., 2022[55]). They have grown up in a world of rapidly changing technology (Çelik and Polat, 2022[81]; Szymkowiak et al., 2021[82]) including increased prevalence of AI. They acquire knowledge through technology and are likely to expect it to be part of their learning (Szymkowiak et al., 2021[82]; Çelik and Polat, 2022[81]), and in turn, to be a tool they can use as teachers. This should not be taken for granted however; recent research has shown that the use of digital tools can also lead to more stress related to teachers’ work (Muylaert, Decramer and Audenaert, 2022[83]).
Intergenerational benefits	There will be mutual benefits for sharing across generations of teachers that can enhance motivation for future teachers as they share new ideas and skills, as well as being developed as practitioners by more experienced teachers (Çelik and Polat, 2022[81]).
Teacher diversity	The current diversity of the teacher workforce is very low, while the amount of diversity among students is much higher. In 2019, 36.8% of children aged between 0 to 17 had a migration background while this is the case only for 6.4% of the teacher workforce in primary and secondary education (Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, 2023[63]). It is therefore important to consider how to attract a more diverse teacher workforce, but also how to attract more teachers with a migration background that are currently in schools (Commissie Diversiteit, 2020[64]). De Witte, De Cort and Gambi mention that further evidence is needed on how to attract a more diverse workforce (2023[41]).
Children’s home language	PISA data shows that the percentage of students that do not speak Dutch at home has increased from 5.9% in 2000 to 23.2% in 2022. When students speak a different home language than the language of instruction at school, it is more difficult to perform at the same level as students who do speak the language of instruction at home, as PISA 2022 has demonstrated in the case of Flanders (De Meyer et al., 2023[84]). This will likely also impact the percentage of students with a migrant background reaching the education levels necessary to become a teacher.

References

[9] Aelterman, A. et al. (2007), “The well‐being of teachers in Flanders: the importance of a supportive school culture”, Educational Studies, Vol. 33/3, pp. 285-297, https://doi.org/10.1080/03055690701423085.

[46] Amitai, A. and M. Van Houtte (2022), “Being pushed out of the career: Former teachers’ reasons for leaving the profession”, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 110, p. 103540, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103540.

[21] Arbeidsmarktplatform primair onderwijs / Dutch labour market platform primary education (2019), Deeltijdwerk nader bekeken [A closer look at part-time work], https://arbeidsmarktplatformpo.nl/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Deeltijdwerk_in_primair_onderwijs.pdf.

[12] Backers, L., M. Tuytens and G. Devos (2020), Het aantrekken en behouden van leraren in een grootstedelijke context [Attracting and retaining teachers in a metropolitan context], https://data-onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/documenten/bestand.ashx?nr=12917.

[70] Baeten, M. and W. Meeus (2016), “Training Second-Career Teachers: A Different Student Profile, A Different Training Approach?”, Educational Process: International Journal, Vol. 5/3, pp. 173-201, https://doi.org/10.12973/edupij.2016.53.1.

[50] Bahlmann, M., B. Eustatia and D. Pillen-Warmerdam (2018), Optimale inrichting van lerarenopleidingen: resultaten van een vignetten -en motievenonderzoek onder havisten, vwo’ers en mbo-4 studenten 9Optimal design of teacher education: results of a vignette and motives survey among students], https://media.qompas.nl/media/vsdg0d00/optimale-inrichting-van-lerarenopleidingen-qompas-2018.pdf.

[51] Bal, M. and M. Visser (2011), “When Are Teachers Motivated to Work Beyond Retirement Age? The Importance of Support, Change of Work Role and Money”, Educational Management Administration & Leadership, Vol. 39/5, pp. 590-602, https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143211408448.

[54] Barrett, P. et al. (2018), The Impact of School Infrastructure on Learning: A Synthesis of the Evidence, Washington, DC: World Bank, https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1378-8.

[62] Belfi, B. et al. (2015), “School-based social capital: The missing link between schools’ socioeconomic composition and collective teacher efficacy”, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 45, pp. 33-44, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2014.09.001.

[17] Bogaerts, I., M. Borzée and C. Vancraeyveldt (2021), Bevlogen blijven in het onderwijs als senior-leraar [Staying inspired in teaching as a senior teacher], UCLL Research & Expertise: Education & Development, https://www.ucll.be/sites/default/files/documents/expertisecellen/Education_Development/bevlogen_senior-leraren.pdf.

[3] Boone, L. (2013), De ontwikkeling van de motivatie voor het lerarenberoep, de onderwijsopvattingen en de betrokkenheid bij het lerarenberoep van studenten tijdens de specifieke lerarenopleiding [Development of students’ motivation for the teaching profession], https://lib.ugent.be/catalog/rug01:002063013.

[14] Boyd, D. et al. (2011), “The Influence of School Administrators on Teacher Retention Decisions”, American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 48/2, pp. 303-333, https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831210380788.

[76] Boyd, D. et al. (2006), “How Changes in Entry Requirements Alter the Teacher Workforce and Affect Student Achievement”, Education Finance and Policy, Vol. 1/2, pp. 176-216, https://doi.org/10.1162/edfp.2006.1.2.176.

[15] Buchanan, J. et al. (2013), “Teacher Retention and Attrition: Views of Early Career Teachers”, Australian Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 38/3, https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2013v38n3.9.

[43] Carver-Thomas, D. and L. Darling-Hammond (2017), Teacher turnover: Why it matters and what we can do about it, https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/product-files/Teacher_Turnover_REPORT.pdf.

[81] Çelik, Ç. and S. Polat (2022), “The Relationship Between Intergenerational Knowledge Sharing and Intergenerational Learning Levels among Teachers”, Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, Vol. 21/4, pp. 427-441, https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2022.2084202.

[64] Commissie Diversiteit (2020), Diversiteit binnen het onderwijzend personeel: advies [Diversity within teaching staff: advice], https://www.serv.be/sites/default/files/documenten/COM_DIV_20200825_diversiteit%20binnen%20onderwijs_ADV.pdf.

[10] Commissie van Wijzen (2023), Prioriteit voor professionaliteit: competente leraren, sterke scholen, hoge onderwijskwaliteit [Priority for professionalism: competent teachers, strong schools, high teaching quality], https://data-onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/documenten/bestanden/rapport-commissie-van-wijzen.pdf.

[84] De Meyer, I. et al. (2023), Vlaams Rapport PISA 2022 [Flemish PISA 2022 Report], Universiteit Gent, Ghent, https://www.pisa.ugent.be/uploads/files/Vlaams-Rapport_PISA2022.pdf.

[32] De Neve, D., G. Devos and M. Tuytens (2015), “The importance of job resources and self-efficacy for beginning teachers’ professional learning in differentiated instruction”, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 47, pp. 30-41, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2014.12.003.

[53] De Witte, K. (2022), “Les in hetzelfde schoolgebouw als je betovergrootouders. Hoe een verouderde schoolinfrastructuur kan leiden tot een financiële molensteen en lagere leerprestaties. [Teaching in the same school building as your great-great-grandparents]”, Leuvense Economische Standpunten, Vol. 196, https://feb.kuleuven.be/research/les/pdf/LES%202022_196%20-%20SCHOOLINFRASTR.pdf.

[41] De Witte, K., W. De Cort and L. Gambi (2023), Evidence-based Solutions to Teacher Shortages, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://doi.org/10.2766/475647.

[61] De Witte, K. et al. (2024), De in- en uitstroom in het lerarenberoep vanuit vergelijkend perspectief [Entry and exit in the teaching profession from a comparative perspective], https://data-onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/documenten/bestanden/Instroom_uitstroom_Lerarenberoep.pdf.

[44] De Witte, K. et al. (2023), Aantrekken van leraren tot opleiden tot startklare professional: Hoe kunnen lerarenopleidingen en hoger onderwijsinstellingen bijdragen aan het verminderen van het lerarentekort? [Attracting teachers to train to become entry-level professionals], https://associatie.kuleuven.be/onderwijs/lerarenopleiding/20231123-aantrekken-en-klaarstomen-leraren-versie.pdf.

[26] Devos, G. et al. (2016), Uitdagingen voor personeelsbeleid: Aanwerving en opdrachttoewijzing in Vlaamse basis-en secundaire scholen [Human resource management challenges: Recruitment and assignment in Flemish primary and secondary schools], https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8029509/file/8029526.

[57] Edwards, J. and D. Cable (2009), “The value of value congruence.”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 94/3, pp. 654-677, https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014891.

[40] European Schoolnet (2020), Output 2: Teacher dropout and early career induction in Flanders: current situation, https://www.klascement.net/artikels/178783/preview/2801713/.

[42] Flamand, P. et al. (2024), “The alignment of induction and evaluation of beginning teachers in secondary education: A strategic human resource management perspective”, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 143, p. 104543, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2024.104543.

[69] Flemish Ministry of Education and Training (2023), Geldelijke anciënniteit en diensten uit de privésector voor zij-instromers in knelpuntambten en-vakken [Monetary seniority and private sector services for lateral entrants in bottleneck posts and subjects], https://onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/nl/onderwijspersoneel/van-basis-tot-volwassenenonderwijs/je-loopbaan/je-ancienniteit/geldelijke-ancienniteit-en-diensten-uit-de-privesector-voor-zij-instromers-in-knelpuntambten-en.

[63] Flemish Ministry of Education and Training (2023), Omgevingsanalyse van het beleidsdomein onderwijs en vorming 2024-2029 [Contextual analysis of the education and training policy area 2024-2029], https://publicaties.vlaanderen.be/view-file/59107.

[1] Flemish Ministry of Education and Training (2023), Statistisch jaarboek van het Vlaams onderwijs - Personeel 2022-2023 - overzichtstabellen [Statistical yearbook of Flemish education - Staff 2022-2023 - summary tables], https://onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/nl/onderwijsstatistieken/statistisch-jaarboek/statistisch-jaarboek-van-het-vlaams-onderwijs-2022-2023.

[37] Flemish Parliament (2018), Schriftelijke vraag nr. 345: uitval jonge leerkrachten - maatregelen [Written question 345: dropout of young teachers - measures], http://docs.vlaamsparlement.be/pfile?id=1391230.

[68] Geiger, T. and M. Pivovarova (2018), “The effects of working conditions on teacher retention”, Teachers and Teaching, Vol. 24/6, pp. 604-625, https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2018.1457524.

[29] Hellebaut, S. et al. (2023), “Burnout, motivation, and (de-)motivating teaching style in different phases of a teaching career”, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 129, p. 104168, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2023.104168.

[5] Huyge, E. et al. (2009), Het beroep leraar doorgelicht. Een cross-sectionele en longitudinale studie naar het profiel en de loopbaan van leraren in vergelijking met andere beroepsgroepen. Samenvatting van de onderzoeksresultaten [Examining the teaching profession], https://onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/sites/default/files/2021-07/Samenvatting_Het%20beroep%20van%20leraar%20doorgelicht.pdf.

[28] Jennings, P. and M. Greenberg (2009), “The Prosocial Classroom: Teacher Social and Emotional Competence in Relation to Student and Classroom Outcomes”, Review of Educational Research, Vol. 79/1, pp. 491-525, https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308325693.

[16] Kelchtermans, G. (2017), “‘Should I stay or should I go?’: unpacking teacher attrition/retention as an educational issue”, Teachers and Teaching, Vol. 23/8, pp. 961-977, https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2017.1379793.

[45] Kelchtermans, G. (2009), “Who I am in how I teach is the message: self‐understanding, vulnerability and reflection”, Teachers and Teaching, doi: 10.1080/13540600902875332, pp. 257-272, https://doi.org/10.1080/13540600902875332.

[33] Ladd, H. (2011), “Teachers’ Perceptions of Their Working Conditions”, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, Vol. 33/2, pp. 235-261, https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373711398128.

[49] Leenders, H. et al. (2019), “Building strong parent–teacher relationships in primary education: the challenge of two-way communication”, Cambridge Journal of Education, doi: 10.1080/0305764X.2019.1566442, pp. 519-533, https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2019.1566442.

[24] Minnen, J., J. Verbeylen and I. Glorieux (2018), Onderzoek Tijdsbesteding leraren basis- en secundair onderwijs [Research on Time spent by primary and secondary school teachers], https://www.onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/nl/onderzoek/vlaams-en-internationaal-onderwijsonderzoek/beleidsrelevant-onderzoek/onderzoek-tijdsbesteding-leraren-basis-en-secundair-onderwijs.

[6] Mombaers, T., K. Vanlommel and P. Van Petegem (2020), De Loopbaan van Onderwijsprofessionals [The Careers of Education Professionals], https://data-onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/documenten/bestand.ashx?nr=12911.

[20] Montero, R. and T. Rau (2015), “Part-time Work, Job Satisfaction and Well-being: Evidence from a Developing OECD Country”, The Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 51/4, pp. 370-385, https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2014.963567.

[83] Muylaert, J., A. Decramer and M. Audenaert (2022), “How Leader’s Red Tape Interacts With Employees’ Red Tape From the Lens of the Job Demands-Resources Model”, Review of Public Personnel Administration, Vol. 43/3, pp. 430-455, https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371x221087420.

[52] OECD (2023), Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en.

[80] OECD (2023), Pensions at a Glance 2023: OECD and G20 Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/678055dd-en.

[18] OECD (2021), Teachers Getting the Best out of Their Students: From Primary to Upper Secondary Education, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5bc5cd4e-en.

[34] OECD (2021), “Teachers’ professional learning study: Diagnostic report for the Flemish Community of Belgium”, OECD Education Policy Perspectives, No. 31, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/7a6d6736-en.

[78] OECD (2021), “Who are the teachers?”, in Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/892d714e-en.

[77] OECD (2019), TALIS 2018 Results (Volume I): Teachers and School Leaders as Lifelong Learners, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1d0bc92a-en.

[4] Pauwels, K. et al. (2022), “Motives of Student Teachers in Academic Teacher Education for Secondary Education: Research in Flanders (Belgium) on the Motivation to Become and to Remain a Teacher”, Education Sciences, Vol. 12/10, p. 724, https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12100724.

[72] Ruitenburg, S. and A. Tigchelaar (2021), “Longing for recognition: A literature review of second-career teachers’ induction experiences in secondary education”, Educational Research Review, Vol. 33, p. 100389, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2021.100389.

[79] Ruohotie-Lyhty, M. and A. Pitkänen-Huhta (2022), “Status versus nature of work: pre-service language teachers envisioning their future profession”, European Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 45/2, pp. 193-212, https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1788535.

[22] Seibt, R. and S. Kreuzfeld (2021), “Influence of Work-Related and Personal Characteristics on the Burnout Risk among Full- and Part-Time Teachers”, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol. 18/4, p. 1535, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041535.

[23] Seibt, R. et al. (2011), “Working conditions of female part-time and full-time teachers in relation to health status”, International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, Vol. 85/6, pp. 675-687, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-011-0715-7.

[27] SERV (2023), Hoe werkbaar is je job? Werktevredenheidsmeting werknemers 2023 [How workable is your job? Employee job satisfaction survey 2023], https://www.serv.be/sites/default/files/documenten/SERV_DB_20231004_WBM2023_Werknemers_RAP_StIA.pdf.

[39] Shanks, R. et al. (2020), “A comparative study of mentoring for new teachers”, Professional Development in Education, Vol. 48/5, pp. 751-765, https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2020.1744684.

[60] Siongers, J. et al. (2020), TALIS 2018 Vlaanderen - Verdiepend rapport - luik diversiteit [TALIS 2018 Flanders - In-depth report - diversity], http://talis2018.be/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/TALIS-2018-Verdiepend-rapport-Diversiteit.pdf.

[58] Skaalvik, E. and S. Skaalvik (2011), “Teacher job satisfaction and motivation to leave the teaching profession: Relations with school context, feeling of belonging, and emotional exhaustion”, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 27/6, pp. 1029-1038, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2011.04.001.

[8] Spruyt, B. et al. (2021), TALIS 2018 Vlaanderen - Verdiepend rapport - loopbanen [TALIS 2018 Flanders - In-depth report - careers], Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, https://researchportal.vub.be/en/publications/talis-2018-vlaanderen-verdiepend-rapport-loopbanen.

[47] Spruyt, B. et al. (2023), “Het lerarentekort kritisch bekeken vanuit internationaal vergelijkend perspectief [Teacher shortage critically examined from international comparative perspective]”, Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht en Onderwijsbeleid, Vol. 79, pp. 19-27, https://torvub.be/torwebdat/publications/t2023_1.pdf.

[59] Statistiek Vlaanderen (2023), Leerling-leerkracht-ratio laagst in secundair onderwijs, hoogst in hoger onderwijs [Pupil-teacher ratio lowest in secondary education, highest in higher education], https://www.vlaanderen.be/statistiek-vlaanderen/onderwijs-en-vorming/leerling-leerkracht-ratio.

[35] Stichting Leerpunt / Learning Point (2024), Over leerpunt - doelstellingen [About learning point - objectives], https://leerpunt.be/over-leerpunt#doelstellingen (accessed on 11 April 2024).

[25] Struyven, K. and G. Vanthournout (2014), “Teachers’ exit decisions: An investigation into the reasons why newly qualified teachers fail to enter the teaching profession or why those who do enter do not continue teaching”, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 43, pp. 37-45, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2014.06.002.

[7] Struyven, K. et al. (2012), “Leerkracht zijn met mijn lerarendiploma? Neen, dank u. Een onderzoek naar de redenen van gekwalificeerde leraren om niet te starten in het onderwijs na afstuderen of na korte tijd eruit te stappen [Being a teacher with my teaching certificate? No thanks.]”, Pedagogische Studien, Vol. 89, pp. 3-19, https://pedagogischestudien.nl/article/download/14278/15754.

[82] Szymkowiak, A. et al. (2021), “Information technology and Gen Z: The role of teachers, the internet, and technology in the education of young people”, Technology in Society, Vol. 65, p. 101565, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101565.

[75] Teach for Belgium (2023), Teach for Belgium, https://teachforbelgium.be/nl/.

[65] Thomas, L. et al. (2018), “Transformational school leadership as a key factor for teachers’ job attitudes during their first year in the profession”, Educational Management Administration & Leadership, Vol. 48/1, pp. 106-132, https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143218781064.

[38] Thomas, L. et al. (2019), “Teachers’ first year in the profession: the power of high-quality support”, Teachers and Teaching, Vol. 25/2, pp. 160-188, https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2018.1562440.

[71] Tigchelaar, A., N. Brouwer and J. Vermunt (2010), “Tailor-made: Towards a pedagogy for educating second-career teachers”, Educational Research Review, Vol. 5/2, pp. 164-183, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2009.11.002.

[30] Tuytens, M. et al. (2021), Psychosociaal welzijnsbeleid als onderdeel van strategisch personeelsbeleid in scholen: wetenschappelijk rapport [Psychosocial wellbeing policy as part of strategic human resources policy in schools: scientific report], https://data-onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/documenten/bestanden/RapportWelzijnsbeleid.pdf.

[67] Tuytens, M., E. Vekeman and G. Devos (2021), “Strategic human resource management in primary and secondary schools. An explorative study in Flanders (Belgium)”, Educational Management Administration & Leadership, Vol. 51/3, pp. 711-732, https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143221998706.

[66] Tuytens, M., E. Vekeman and G. Devos (2020), De rol van culture schoolkenmerken en schoolleiderschap voor strategisch personeelsbeleid [The role of cultural school characteristics and school leadership for strategic human resource management], https://data-onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/documenten/bestand.ashx?nr=12874.

[2] Van Droogenbroeck, F. et al. (2019), TALIS 2018 Vlaanderen - Volume I, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, http://talis2018.be/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/TALIS-2018-Vlaanderen-Volume-I.pdf.

[11] Van Droogenbroeck, F. et al. (2020), TALIS 2018 Vlaanderen - Volume II, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, http://talis2018.be/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/TALIS-2018-Vlaanderen-Volume-II.pdf.

[31] Van Droogenbroeck, F. et al. (2021), “Does the School Context Really Matter for Teacher Burnout? Review of Existing Multilevel Teacher Burnout Research and Results From the Teaching and Learning International Survey 2018 in the Flemish- and French-Speaking Communities of Belgium”, Educational Researcher, Vol. 50/5, pp. 290-305, https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x21992361.

[56] Van Droogenbroeck, F., B. Spruyt and C. Vanroelen (2014), “Burnout among senior teachers: Investigating the role of workload and interpersonal relationships at work”, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 43, pp. 99-109, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2014.07.005.

[55] Vanwynsberghe, H. et al. (2022), Onderzoeksrapport Apestaartjaren : de digitale leefwereld van kinderen en jongeren [Research report Apestaartjaren : the digital lifeworld of children and young people], Mediaraven, https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8754629.

[13] Vekeman, E., M. Tuytens and G. Devos (2020), Belangrijke job demands en job resources in relatie tot het welbevinden en de verloopintentie van leerkrachten [Key job demands and job resources in relation to teacher well-being and turnover intention], Steunpunt Onderwijsonderzoek, https://data-onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/documenten/bestand.ashx?nr=12875.

[19] Vernet (2021), Meer werken, minder verzuim: wens of werkelijkheid [More work, less absenteeism: wish or reality], https://wp-hetpotentieelpakken.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/2021/09/21-12323_vernet_artikel_potentieel_pakken_11mvd_interactief.pdf.

[73] Wagner, T. and D. Imanuel-Noy (2014), “Are they Genuinely Novice Teachers? - Motivations and Self-Efficacy of those who Choose Teaching as a Second Career”, Australian Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 39/7, https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2014v39n7.5.

[74] Wilkins, C. and C. Comber (2015), “‘Elite’ career-changers in the teaching profession”, Br Educ Res J, Vol. 41, pp. 1010-1030, https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3183.

[36] Willegems, V. (2020), Inside Stories of Collaborative Teacher Research Teams: Spaces for Developing Extended Professionalism in School-university Partnerships., Vrije Universiteit Brussel.

[48] Willemse, T. et al. (2015), “Preparing teachers for family–school partnerships: a Dutch and Belgian perspective”, Teaching Education, Vol. 27/2, pp. 212-228, https://doi.org/10.1080/10476210.2015.1069264.