This note provides an overview of Chile’s digital education ecosystem, including the digital tools for system and institutional management and digital resources for teaching and learning that are publicly provided to schools and educational stakeholders. The note outlines how public responsibilities for the governance of digital education are divided and examines how Chile supports the equitable and effective access to and use of digital technology and data in education. This includes through practices and policies on procurement, interoperability, data privacy and regulation, and digital competencies. Finally, the note discusses how Chile engages in any initiatives, including with the EdTech sector, to drive innovation and research and development towards an effective digital ecosystem.
Country Digital Education Ecosystems and Governance
4. Chile
Abstract
Key features
A high degree of school autonomy combines with a significant presence of the government in Chile due to its funding of both public and private owned schools through subsidies.
Widely adopted information systems are provided to schools, with mandated use for those benefitted by public funds. Those include a student information system and a student admission system. An early warning system is being piloted.
Interoperability is mandated by law, and the country has long-standing data privacy and transparency regulations.
General policy context
Division of responsibility
Educational institutions, public or private, operate with a fair degree of autonomy in Chile. Institutions are, nonetheless, regulated, assessed, and supported by a network of institutions, forming the national quality assurance system (the Sistema de Securement de la Calidad – SAC). The SAC is made of four institutions working in co-ordination: the Ministry of Education (Ministerio de Educación – MINEDUC), that acts as the guiding institution regarding policy, curriculum, and its implementation; the education superintendency (Superintendencia de Educación), tasked with the inspection of institutions; the education quality agency (Agencia de Calidad de la Educación), in charge of educational assessment; and a national education council (Consejo Nacional de Educación), that discusses and approves key documents such as the national curriculum guidelines, performance standards, and the national assessment plan.
Schools can be publicly or privately run. The former can be administered by the municipality, or by local education services (servicios locales de educación), entities created to take over municipal responsibilities.1 Private schools are managed by private individuals or entities, and most are publicly subsidised. This type of institution served the majority of Chilean students as of 2020 and are under similar governmental oversight as public schools.2
Responsibilities for providing access, supporting the use of, and leveraging the potential of digital technologies in education reflect this combination of autonomy and top-down policy, regulation, and assessment. While sub-national authorities or schools themselves oversee the provision of institutional management systems to the institutions under their care, the central government provides system management tools to all schools. Access to teaching and learning resources is also provided by the central government but, as schools are often autonomous with respect to their teaching, resources can be provided by institutions themselves or by their maintaining entity.
Regulation on equitable access and use of digital education in classrooms are set by the central government, albeit the quality of implementation depends heavily on schools. Data governance is also set by the central government, with comprehensive data protection and interoperability regulations, as well as rules on access to education data and a regularly updated national student register. In addition, compliance to regulations is checked by regular or prompted inspections by the above-mentioned education superintendency.
Digital education strategy
Digitalisation is seen as a key component of Chile’s development strategy to foster economic growth and social inclusion, which motivated the development of digital transformation documents leading to the country’s most recent 2035 government-wide strategy.3 Gobierno Digital (digital government), a department under the Ministry of the General Secretary of the Chilean President, oversees and coordinates coherent government-wide digital transformation efforts, with a mandate to establish norms related to digital transformation, operate transversal digital platforms for public institutions, and organise consultations on the implementation of digital transformation policy.
Albeit comprehensive, the national government-wide digital strategy does not focus specifically on digital education, which is complemented by an education-specific strategy along four axes: connectivity, digital infrastructure, development of capacities, and data governance, each with accompanying programmes being developed by the Ministry.4 In addition to education-specific initiatives, the potential of digital tools to be a tool to improve the quality of education and the key role of digital competences are also highlighted in the government-wide strategy. The education-specific strategy lists digital education initiatives that exist in alignment with broader policy. Specific programmes exist for the provision of reliable high-speed connectivity to schools; to provide devices to students, to support students with special educational needs (SEN), as well as students most socio-economically disadvantaged, or schools in disadvantaged or remote locations.
The public digital education infrastructure
The Chilean government provides quite a few elements of the digital educational infrastructure available to public and publicly subsidised private schools, notably, a student information system that is widely used and frequently updated, a student admission system that is universally used, and an early warning system that is being rolled out in schools since its inception in 2020. Schools themselves have received support to adopt learning management systems, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, and larger institutions often utilise platforms with embarked customer relationship management systems that facilitate communication with parents.
The provision of digital resources for teaching and learning is also varied in Chile, with the central government supporting open and closed repositories as a part of an environment where multiple stakeholders such as publishers, EdTech companies, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and universities contribute with digital tools and resources.
Digital ecosystem for system and school management
Student information system and learning management system
Although the responsibility for providing primary and secondary education is devolved to sub-national public entities and private organisations, the central government plays a central role on admissions and notably funding, which being provided on a per-student basis and accounting for factors such as attendance, leads to the wide adoption of government-provided tools for system management.
A main pillar of this digital infrastructure is SIGE (Sistema Información General de Estudiantes – general student information system), a student information system adopted by most Chilean schools.5 Due to how schools are funded, schools that receive public subsidies (meaning public and privately subsidised schools, accounting for over 90% of enrolled students) must provide data to SIGE. The system contains a comprehensive amount of student data such as enrolment, attendance, performance in classroom assessments, and indicators such as eligibility for supplementary funds (e.g., due to disadvantaged socio-economic status, or special needs). It also contains data on school staff, being used for human resource management and eligibility for further training, and for some tasks of institution management, such as acknowledging receipt of textbooks and some measures of ICT infrastructure.
Students and school staff can be tracked longitudinally via their national identification number, which is also used for all other interactions with the government and, allied with a significant degree of interoperability with learning management systems fostered by existing data standards, allows for a wealth of information to be added to or obtained from SIGE.6 Indeed, given that data must be provided within existing standards to allow for interoperability and accountability, schools can use a wide variety of learning management systems, depending on institutional choice or existing agreements, with Google Classroom, Moodle, and several nationally developed systems as the most adopted tools.7 Data from SIGE are also available for the ministry and its quality assurance entities to guide data-driven policy making, and are made available for the wider community in aggregated form on an open data portal (Datos Abiertos)8.
Admission and guidance
Admission to all public or publicly subsidised private schools to all education levels is managed by SAE, a school admission system managed by the central government.9 Families enrolling students have access to a broad variety of school information, such as available openings and how competitive said openings were in previous year, teaching plan and curricula, performance information, and extracurricular activities. This information tends to be pushed into the SAE system directly through interoperability with the SIGE information system mentioned above, creating yet another incentive for schools to keep their data up to date.
As they submit their school selections to SAE, information is also retrieved from the Chilean Civil Registry systems, which is interoperable with SAE and pre-fills a significant part of the applications with key variables for the selection process such as socio-economic variables and the existence of enrolled siblings. Should more submissions than openings exist, a selection process is performed through an algorithm taking several priorities defined by existing regulations into account: prospective students with enrolled siblings are prioritised, then remaining openings are offered to socio-economically disadvantaged students up to a maximum of 15% of total openings, which are then followed by children of school staff and returning drop-out students that were not expelled. The remaining openings, if any, are then randomly assigned to prospective students not fitting the above-mentioned criteria.10
Although there are orientations from the Ministry to schools when it comes to career guidance, there is no comprehensive platform available to guide career choice available for Chilean students. There are nonetheless resources made available by the government for students interested in continuing their studies in tertiary education through the Mi Futuro portal (“my future”, available at https://www.mifuturo.cl/), where students can find higher education institutions, and information on admission, careers and future job prospects.
Exams and assessments
Students in Chile sit the SIMCE, a set of national system-level assessments in mathematics, reading and other subjects such as natural and social sciences for students in grade 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10. The assessment is administered on a census basis to schools, and the list of subjects can vary based on grade and year of administration, with all grades taking reading in all editions.11 Given its scale, SIMCE is delivered as a paper-based assessment, but digital tools are employed to support its administration, such as online item grading platforms and digital tools for data reading and processing.
There is however the DIA, an online digital assessment, available on a voluntary basis for schools wishing to assess their students in academic (maths and reading, with optional assessments on other domains depending on the grade) and socio-emotional subjects on a formative basis.12 The DIA assessment is designed to be delivered in three distinct moments within the school year: a first diagnostic test, a follow-up halfway, and a closing assessment at the end. It is also available for all grades, but it enjoys wider adoption within the first years of basic education.
Other tools and resources
An early warning system, the SAT, has been rolled out by the government in 2020: it aims to predict and prevent school drop-out from grade 7 to 12 students enrolled in public or publicly subsidised schools.13 The SAT uses demographic, socio-economic, attendance, and performance information pushed from other interoperable systems such as the SIGE student information system mentioned above as inputs to a predictive algorithm, which then assigns a measure of drop-out risk to a given student. The algorithm is developed by the ministry for social development and family (the MIDESOF) and transferred to the ministry of education for management and implementation. Adoption of the SAT is not yet widespread within the Chilean education system, and the SAT is not yet available for students in early years (i.e., before grade 7) or in other education modalities such as special education.
Digital ecosystem for teaching and learning
The government plays an active role in the provision of digital resources for teaching and learning in Chile, providing access and resources, both in an open and closed form for the education community and aimed at students and teacher development.
Textbooks are bought centrally for public and publicly subsidised schools, but students and teachers can access all materials in digital form upon logging into a dedicated website, thus representing a wide offer of static digital learning resources.14 These resources are complemented by digital libraries containing a wide range of reading materials, both for classroom and leisure reading, in closed and open access modes.15 In addition, platforms exist for students to learn through massive open online courses (MOOCs), ranging from the broad courses of additional languages and office software towards specific courses such as programming.16 There is also a dedicated TV channel for educational content, and dedicated TV and radio education produced for primary, secondary and VET students for broadcast and use.17
Besides the above-mentioned resources that teachers can leverage in the classroom, resources are shared to teachers through a government-maintained portal dedicated to the implementation of the national curriculum. Teachers can find similar static digital learning resources as those provided to students, but also guidance on the curriculum, its standards, and on assessment. There is also a bank of assessment items, classified according to the curriculum, for use in the classroom.18 In-service teacher training is also facilitated by an online portal offering courses directed at teachers reaching diverse facets of the teaching profession, often with tutors through the Desarollo docente en linea portal.19
Students with special educational needs are also a focus on the provision of digital resources. The ministry supports a hub with an open educational resources (OER) repository containing textbooks with increased fonts for students with vision impairments, guidance for teachers and institutions serving these students, and a curated list of digital tools and resources for use in the classroom, including several to support assistive technologies.20
Access, use and governance of digital technologies and data in education
Ensuring access and supporting use
Equity of access
In Chile, funding for all public and publicly subsidised private schools is provided by the central government on a per-student basis through a mechanism called preferential school grant (SEP).21 This funding scheme aims at increasing equity within the education system by establishing increased funding for students with disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds, for those with special education needs, and those in rural areas. Funding via the SEP also outlines a clear division on governmental oversight and implementation of policy – for instance, all institutions receiving funding via SEP are subject to the same admission procedure (using the SAE system mentioned above) and providing required data for the government to receive its funding.
Equity of access to reliable, high-speed, Internet connections and up-to-date devices capable of leveraging digital education tools and resources are also the target of directed programmes. Indeed, dedicated funding of high-speed Internet connectivity to schools, with accompanying guidance and support is provided by the CpE2030 programme, which built on its previous CpE2011 cycle to bring infrastructure to thousands of schools allied to the Aulas Conectadas programme, the latter providing also support and further guidance.22 Devices are also provided to students at secondary education through the Me Conecto para Aprender programme, which provided access to devices, resources, and Internet connectivity to students and enjoyed quite a large coverage of students in public and publicly subsidised private schools, with provision of equipment to schools, teachers, or students complemented by recent initiatives such as the Kit Tecnologico para la Transformación Digital equipment provision programme.23, 24
Directed support to students with special educational needs (SEN) can be achieved by fully leveraging digital educational resources and dedicated programmes exist to achieve this goal. Notably, the Tecnologias de Aceso Universal para la Educación (TAUE) programme aims to support access to curriculum, combat drop-out, and foster the improvement of learning outcomes of students with special education needs via the provision of assistive technologies, specific teacher training, and follow-ups in institutions that serve SEN students such as special education schools or health facilities.25
Supporting the use of digital tools and resources
The interplay between school or sub-national authorities’ autonomy and the government’s role as a funder and supporter of education in Chile is also reflected in the resources and support available for the use of digital education tools and resources for teaching and learning. There is a varied landscape of requisites and resources: use of some platforms is mandatory for institutions funded by public resources and additional non-earmarked subsidies exist for the adoption of others or acquisition of digital education resources.
Indeed, the use of several digital platforms is mandated by the government for all schools funded by public resources (i.e., public or publicly subsidised private institutions), namely assiduous data entry into the centrally provided student information system (the aforementioned SIGE platform). In addition, the use of the centrally provided student admissions system (the SAE) is also mandated.
Furthermore, the government also provides additional earmarked and non-earmarked subsidies for the purchase of digital educational tools and resources. The former are connected to directed initiatives to provide ICT infrastructure or devices, or assistive technologies (such as the programmes for students with special needs mentioned in the previous section), while the latter are related to resources connected to broader programmes supporting the improvement of overall learning outcomes.26 Furthermore, the government also provides significant guidance for school administrators and other members of the community looking to access these and other resources for instance, through the Comunidad Escolar portal.27
Cultivating the digital literacy of education stakeholders
The government provides professional learning opportunities for teachers to discover as well as improve their use of digital education tools, and to embed digital competences into their teaching. Notably, the Educarchile portal provides a list of curated digital tools for diverse uses in the classroom and in the teaching profession (such as grading, presenting, or publishing material), while providing opportunities for professional development and peer learning such as the Educarchile portal.28 Also, within the wide variety of initial and in-service training provided within the ministry’s CPEIP, there are courses for teachers using the Google Classroom suite, to those wishing to embed digital competences into their teaching, and the above-mentioned MOOC platform Desarollo Docente en línea.29
In addition, Chile is also promoting a framework for fostering digital citizenship of teachers, students, and their families. This framework aims to develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for the full exercise of data rights and democratic co-existence through the safe and responsible use of digital technology. Resources and training, including on existing digital tools, is made available through a dedicated website Ciudadania Digital (https://ciudadaniadigital.mineduc.cl/) and the initiative is expected to inform curriculum development.
The training provided through these resources, both in pre- and in-service training, is regulated by exiting standards. Rules dictating which standards teachers must meet exist within the legal framework underlying Chilean education, and said standards have very clear competences and guidelines related to the use of digital technology in teaching.30 Indeed, both initial and in-service standards highlight the need of leveraging digital tools and resources within the classroom to improve teaching and accessibility of the material, and promoting safe behaviours online and when using technology.31
Teachers’ digital literacy is also indirectly fostered by the presence of requisites for digital competences in students’ national curricula. Educational institutions have a degree of autonomy implementing their own approach but are bound to be based on national curricular basis and fundament documents outlining what is expected from students at a given grade, arising from legislation in the matter that outlines the role of schools in providing access to information and the effective use of information technology.32 These documents, prepared and circulated by the ministry, outline the presence of digital competences, with ICT competence figuring as a transversal skill to be taught in the early years (grades 1 to 6), and the use of technology and technology-inspired problem-solving to present in the basis for further years (grades 7 to 12).33
Governance of data and digital technology in education
Data privacy is regulated in Chile through a specific law (Law 19 628) promulgated as early as of 1999, making it the first one of its kind in South America. This law is due to be reformed following technological developments in the last decades and Chile’s accession to the OECD in 2010.34 A bill proposed to this goal has been proposed, inspired by the EU General Data Protection Regulation (EU GDPR), but has yet to be promulgated into law. There is no specific legislation regarding schools or the broad data rights of students, but legislation exists on the protection of financial information or debts acquired during education.35
Privacy regulations notwithstanding, access to education data is assured both by a broader access to information law guaranteeing access to anonymised state information, and by specific legislation obliging the government to provide disaggregated information on quality, equity, and coverage of educational institutions.36 Beyond legal obligations, the government proactively maintains an open data portal where a wealth of anonymised data on students, teachers, and data on education institutions through the Datos Abiertos (“Open data”) portal.37
Interoperability of platforms and data managed by the government is enshrined in national legislation regulating digital transformation initiatives, with open data standards provided by a dedicated digital government agency and based on the Common Education Data Standards (CEDS) for a measure of international interoperability.38, 39 In addition, proactive or provoked inspections by the above-mentioned education superintendency can also foster the adoption and use of digital education in alignment with curriculum and legal requirements.
Supporting innovation, research, and development (R‑D) in digital education
Fostering local digital tools and resources, providing incentives, and engaging with relevant external stakeholders are key to development of a national digital education ecosystem. Monetary and non-monetary incentives directed support of research and development (R-D) in academia and in the private sector or directly funding or incubating education technology (EdTech) start-up companies are elements of an innovation portfolio to be explored by countries.
Chile has a conducive environment for open education data, including regulation, access, and documentation of public administrative datasets, for instance through the Datos Abiertos platform mentioned above. There is, however, no dataset or surveys on digital education, the country’s digital infrastructure or ICT resources available at schools at this date, and the government has performed studies on the impact of digital education and other initiatives through a research centre connected to the ministry responsible for impact studies.40
In addition, there are funds available providing monetary incentives for research in education that have been used to conduct research on digital education or ICT competences. The ministry itself manages an “investigation and development in education” fund (FONIDE) that funds research on education, often conducted within universities, through yearly calls for proposals. 41 Beside earmarked ministry funds, other parts of the government can also contribute with funding research efforts. For instance, the broader scientific and technologic development fund (FONDEF) has also been used to fund the development of ICT in education through thematic calls for proposals.42
Beyond research, there is some in-house development of digital tools and resources within the ministry. One example is the Aula 360 platform, an interactive platform for students to engage with the curriculum and foster the development of metacognition, independent, and creative thinking.43 The platform has been developed for selected subjects of the grade 11 and 12 mathematics curriculum as a pilot and its roll-out is underway.
The ministry also collaborates with EdTech start-ups to support research, development and innovation in digital education. Formal engagement with the private sector is regulated by broader legislation regulating lobbying activities and other interactions between public officials and representatives of private entities.44 Nonetheless, rapport exists between the government and the EdTech sector through a national entity representing the sector (Associación General de Empresas de Tecnologias en Educación – AGETECH). This informal channel of communication also provides an industry perspective in consultations for making policy decisions, contributing with a private sector perspective to the public viewpoints from other entities of the quality assurance system: the national education council, and education superintendency.
Looking forward, the government aims to support pilot programmes using classroom analytics technologies, to maintain and increase the support for information systems available to schools – both for well-established and widely adopted systems such as the SIGE student information system and the SAE student admission system, but also for nascent programmes such as the SAT early warning system. Technology and data governance is also of particular interest for the ministry going forward as a revision of data protection regulations approaches in the near future, which would deeply change the current process that relies on compliance with data privacy and protection regulations at a per-institution basis.
Notes
← 1. As of Law 21 040 (Ley 21 040, available at https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?idNorma=1111237)
← 2. 54% of student enrolments as of 2020 are on publicly subsidised private schools, against 32% on public schools and 9% on entirely private institutions (MINEDUC, 2020, available at https://centroestudios.mineduc.cl/wp-content/uploads/sites/100/2020/09/APUNTES-7_2020_f02.pdf )
← 3. Estrategia de transformación digital Chile Digital 2035, available at https://www.cepal.org/sites/default/files/events/files/estrategia_de_transformacion_digital_chile_2035_.pdf
← 4. Transformación Digital, available at https://www.innovacion.mineduc.cl/iniciativas/transformaci%C3%B3n-digital
← 5. SIGE is available at https://sige.mineduc.cl/
← 6. All Chileans are issued a national id that is used for tax and for a wealth of other purposes, called RUT (Rol Unico Tributario). Non-nationals are provided a provisional id number, which is replaced in the case of becoming Chilean nationals.
← 7. For example, by tools such as the Libro de Clases Digital, available at https://www.webclass.cl/libro-de-clases-digital/, Kimche (https://www.kimche.co/libro-digital), Napsis (https://napsis.com/plataformas/plataforma-de-gestion-escolar/libro-de-clases-digital/), Paipnotas (https://papinotas.cl/libro-de-clases-digital/), Colegium (https://info.colegium.com/libro-de-clases-digital-chile/), and Limri (https://www.lirmi.com/es-cl/libro-de-clases), to cite a few of the most popular.
← 8. Datos Abiertos, available at https://centroestudios.mineduc.cl/datos-abiertos/
← 9. Sistema de Admisión Escolar, available at https://www.sistemadeadmisionescolar.cl/
← 10. The process, including how the algorithm prioritised student applications, can be found at https://www.sistemadeadmisionescolar.cl/como-funciona.html, in Spanish.
← 11. More detail can be found on Chile’s 2021 – 2026 national and international assessment plan (Plan de Evaluaciones Nacionales e Internacionales 2021-2026), available at https://bibliotecadigital.mineduc.cl/bitstream/handle/20.500.12365/17312/plan%20de%20evaluaciones%2021-26.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
← 12. From the Spanish acronym for Diagnostico Integral de la Aprendisaje, available at https://diagnosticointegral.agenciaeducacion.cl/
← 13. From the Spanish acronym for Sistema de Alerta Temprana, more information is available at https://www.mineduc.cl/sistema-de-alerta-temprana-contra-la-desercion-escolar/
← 15. Namely, through the digital school library (Biblioteca Digital Escolar, available at https://bdescolar.mineduc.cl/) and the UCE free library (Biblioteca Escolar UCE de descarga liberada, available at https://www.curriculumnacional.cl/portal/Secciones/Biblioteca-Escolar-UCE/), that are closed and open repositories of reading material, respectively.
← 16. A broad offering of online courses can be found at the BiblioRedes (https://moodle.biblioredes.gob.cl/) and SENCE (available at https://sence.gob.cl/) portals, while programming courses were made available at https://jprogramadores.biblioredes.gob.cl/moodle/
← 17. Through the TV Educa Chile channel (https://www.tvn.cl/tveducachile/), Aprendo TV (https://www.curriculumnacional.cl/estudiantes/Aprendo-en-linea/Aprendo-TV/214638:Aprendo-TV) and Aprendo FM (https://www.curriculumnacional.cl/estudiantes/Aprendo-en-linea/Aprendo-FM/223682:Aprendo-FM), respectively.
← 18. Available at https://www.curriculumnacional.cl/portal/
← 19. Available at https://desarrollodocenteenlinea.cpeip.cl/.
← 20. Available at https://especial.mineduc.cl/
← 21. From the Spanish acronym for Subvencion Escolar Preferencial, and outlined by Law 20 248 (Ley 20 248, available at https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?idNorma=269001&idParte=)
← 22. From the acronym Conectividad para la Educación 2030 (connectivity for education 2030) available at https://www.innovacion.mineduc.cl/iniciativas/cpe2030 and Aulas Conectadas (Connected classes), available at https://www.innovacion.mineduc.cl/iniciativas/aulas-conectadas
← 23. Me Conecto para Aprender: https://escolar.mineduc.cl/tecnologias-para-el-aprendizaje/me-conecto-aprender/
← 24. Available at https://www.innovacion.mineduc.cl/iniciativas/kit-tecnol%C3%B3gicos-para-la-transformaci%C3%B3n-digital
← 25. Universal access technologies for education, available at https://www.ayudamineduc.cl/ficha/tecnologias-de-acceso-universal-para-la-educacion-taue
← 26. Such as the resources provided within the scope of the Plan de Mejoramento Educativo (PME), https://www.ayudamineduc.cl/ficha/plan-de-mejoramiento-educativo-pme
← 27. Available at https://www.comunidadescolar.cl/
← 28. Available at https://www.educarchile.cl/
← 29. From the Spanish acronym for Centro de Perfecionamento, Experimentación e Investigaciones Pedagogicas, https://www.cpeip.cl/
← 30. Namely through Law 20 903 (Ley 20 903, available at https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?idNorma=1087343)
← 31. The standards can be found at https://estandaresdocentes.mineduc.cl/, in Spanish.
← 32. As of MINEDUC DFL 2 of 2010 (Decreto con Fuerza de Ley 2/2010), in particular Articles 29 2 d) and 30 2 e), available at https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?idNorma=1014974&idVersion=2023-02-09&idParte=8940681
← 33. The basis and fundaments documents produced by MINEDUC are available at https://www.curriculumnacional.cl/portal/Documentos-Curriculares/
← 34. Ley 19 628 sobre proteccion de la vida privada, available at https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?idNorma=141599
← 35. Namely Laws 18 591 and 21 214, available at https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?idNorma=29982 and https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?i=1142880 respectively.
← 36. In particular, Law 20 285 and Article 4 of the DFL 2/2010 mentioned before. The former is available at https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?idNorma=276363
← 37. Datos Abiertos portal: https://datosabiertos.mineduc.cl/
← 38. As of Law 21 180 (Ley 21 180, Transformación Digital del Estado, available at https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?idNorma=1138479&idParte=10067375&idVersion=2222-02-02)
← 39. Gob digital Chile, available at https://digital.gob.cl/plataformas-transversales/
← 40. Namely, the Centro de Estudios (studies centre, available at https://centroestudios.mineduc.cl)
← 41. From the Spanish acronym for Fondo de Investigación y Desarollo en Educación, available at https://centroestudios.mineduc.cl/fondo-de-investigacion-y-desarrollo-en-educacion/
← 42. From the Spanish acronym for Fondo de Fomento al Desarroyo Cientifico y Tecnológico, available at https://www.conicyt.cl/fondef/
← 43. Aula 360: https://aula360.mineduc.cl/
← 44. In particular, through Law 20 730 (Ley 20 730, available at https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?idNorma=1060115).