Participation in formal and/or non-formal education and training remained almost unchanged between 2016 and 2022 on average across countries with comparable data from the EU-Adult Education Survey (EU-AES). However, individual countries experienced diverging trends. Many countries with already high participation rates in 2016 increased their participation rates further, whereas many countries with low participation rates in 2016 saw decreases in participation.
There are multiple barriers that may prevent higher participation rates in adult learning. Among barriers surveyed by EU-AES, scheduling conflicts are the most cited barrier among adults who would like to participate in adult learning but did not in over two thirds of countries. Costs and family commitments are also frequently cited as factors preventing adult learning engagement in most countries.
A lack of perceived need for education and training is another major reason holding back adult learning participation. On average across the OECD and accession countries taking part in EU-AES, 70% of 25-64 year-olds who did not participate in education and training reported they had no need to do so. This share varies considerably across countries, ranging from 41% in the Netherlands to over 90% in Bulgaria and Lithuania.
Education at a Glance 2024
The skills required in the labour market are constantly evolving. Although initial education is crucial for equipping young people with the skills they need for successful entry into the labour market, adult learning remains essential for providing opportunities for upskilling and reskilling. Investments in skills will also be vital as societies adapt to the growing capabilities of artificial intelligence (AI) and in order to build a resilient green economy.
Capturing the state of adult learning through indicators poses several challenges. To address them, the OECD has recently released a working paper that presents a comprehensive framework for adult learning. This framework aims to improve the identification of statistical data on adult learning systems and facilitate the selection of relevant indicators for monitoring purposes across countries. It also outlines national policies and practices within this domain (Sekmokas et al., 2024[1]).
This chapter focuses on key elements from the adult learning framework such as: the drivers of adult learning and barriers to participation. Despite different priorities and targets in adult learning systems across countries, one common issue is that those with the greatest needs are often unaware of the benefits of taking up training.
25-64 year-olds; in per cent
Note: Education and training refers to formal and/or non-formal education and training.
1. The average is derived from the unweighted mean of all countries with available and comparable data for both years.
2. The data refer to the average of four quarters of a given year.
Countries are ranked in descending order of the percentage of 25-64 year-olds participating in formal and/or non-formal education and training in 2022.
See Table A5.1 for data and under Chapter A5 Tables for StatLink. For more information see Source section and Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en).
Women are generally more likely to participate in education and training than men, and the gender gap has widened slightly in recent years. On average across countries taking part in EU-AES, the gender gap in favour of women increased from 1 percentage point in 2016 to 3 percentage points in 2022. However, the presence of young children in the household, together with other family obligations, have a disproportionate effect on women’s ability to participate in adult learning opportunities.
The share of adults who did not participate in education and training because they report they have no need to do so does not vary much by educational attainment level. However, men and 55-64 year-olds are generally more inclined to believe they have no need for education and training.
Adults engage in formal education and training for various reasons, including the extended duration of tertiary education among 25-29 year-olds, the availability of second-chance education programmes at the upper secondary level and the popularity of vocational upper secondary programmes in mid-career.
Different sources are used in this chapter. The EU-Adult Education Survey (EU-AES) is used for all countries participating in this survey and national sources are used for the other countries. Refer to the Source section for more detail.
Traditionally, education took place in a period during childhood and youth during which most skills were acquired and specialisation was achieved. Following this period, people might marginally improve their skills in the workplace through formal, non-formal and/or informal learning. This model is increasingly untenable in a world of rapid technological, economic and societal changes where individuals are required to re-learn tasks with new technologies, and adjust to an ever-changing work landscape. In 2022, 46% of 25-64 year-olds participated in formal or non-formal education and training, on average across the OECD and accession countries participating in EU-Adult Education Survey (EU-AES). The share varies from 17% in Greece to 74% in Sweden (Table A5.1).
Adult learning often takes the form of non-formal education and training, rather than formal education, the latter of which dominates initial education and is more common among young people. The prevalence of non-formal education and training in adult learning activities holds true in all countries with available data. On average, 42% of 25-64 year-olds reported participating in non-formal education and training while the share is only 7% for formal education and training among countries taking part in EU-AES (Table A5.1).
Adults participate in formal education and training for various reasons. In some cases, it is because the extended duration of tertiary education means some 25-29 year-olds are still taking part in their initial formal education. On average across OECD countries, 12% of individuals in this age group were enrolled in formal tertiary education in 2020, compared to 4% of 30-39 year-olds and less than 1% of 40-64 year-olds (OECD, 2022[2]). Meanwhile second-chance education programmes, often at upper secondary level, appear to play a pivotal role in explaining above-average adult participation in formal education and training in some countries. For example, Sweden offers two general programmes tailored to adults seeking to complete their compulsory or upper secondary education. Additionally, in some countries such as New Zealand, enrolment in vocational upper secondary programmes is dominated by those aged over 24 (see Chapter B3).
The adoption of artificial intelligence and the transition to a low-carbon economy are having a profound impact on the skills the labour market requires. Workers from brown occupations (e.g. tire builders) or highly automatable jobs (e.g. cashiers) do not have, in general, sufficient skills to transition to green jobs (Tyros, Andrews and de Serres, 2023[3]). Adult learning systems need to adapt in response to the emergence of new job profiles and skill requirements. However, there is no evidence yet to support any massive increase in adult learning participation. On average across the OECD and accession countries participating in EU-AES in both 2016 and 2022, participation rates in formal and/or non-formal education and training remained almost unchanged, at 45% in 2016 and 2022. However, there is a diverging trend across countries. Several countries with high participation rates in 2016 saw an upward trend in 2022. Germany, Hungary, the Slovak Republic and Spain all witnessed participation rate increases of more than 5 percentage points over this period. On the other hand, adults became less likely to engage in education and training in some countries without a strong adult learning culture. For example, in Bulgaria, Croatia and Poland, participation rates were more than 10 percentage points below the average in 2016, and have fallen further in 2022 (Figure A5.1).
The overall trend in participation hides some differences between formal and non-formal education and training. For example, the rise in adult learning participation in Luxembourg and the Netherlands has been driven solely by increased formal participation, while in Croatia, Latvia and Spain, changes have been entirely due to changes in participation in non-formal education and training. Notably, only nine countries with comparable trend data experienced increased participation rates in both formal and non-formal education and training (Table A5.1).
Women are slightly more likely than men to participate in adult education and training. The gender gap in women’s favour widened from 1 percentage point in 2016 to 3 percentage points in 2022 on average across OECD and accession countries with comparable data for both years (Table A5.1). Interestingly, while women with young children in the household were less likely than men in the same situation to participate in adult learning, the gender gap for this measure has narrowed. Between 2016 and 2022, the difference in participation rates between men and women with young children in the household closed completely. On average across OECD countries, 50% of men and 48% of women with young children in the household participated in adult education and training in 2016, while in 2022 these percentages were 49% of men and of women, thus rendering their participation rates the same. However, considerable disparities remain in some countries: for instance, in Hungary and the Slovak Republic, among adults with young children, participation among men exceeded that of women by more than 15 percentage points in 2022 (Table A5.4, available on line).
Many adults face barriers to accessing adult learning opportunities. Schedule conflicts are by far the most common barrier among adults who would like to participate in adult learning but did not. In Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary and Latvia, more than half of 25-64 year-old non-participants cited schedule conflicts as preventing them from taking part in education and training, at least 20 percentage points more than the next most frequently cited barrier (which is family commitments for Austria, and costs for Bulgaria, Hungary and Latvia (Figure A5.2 and Table A5.2).
Costs are another significant barrier to adult learning participation. On average across OECD and accession countries taking part in EU-AES, around one-third of 25-64 year-olds who had wanted to access education and training identified cost as a reason they did not. This is the most-cited barrier in Finland, the Netherlands, Romania, and Switzerland (Figure A5.2).
25-64 year-olds; in per cent
1. Year of reference differs from 2022. Refer to the source table for more details.
2. Definition differs. Refer to the source table for more details.
3. Data represent only adults wanting to participate in non-formal education and training but did not.
Countries are ranked in descending order of the share of 25-64 year-olds who wanted to participate in education and training but could not due to schedule conflicts.
See Table A5.2 for data and under Chapter A5 Tables for StatLink. For more information see Source section and Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en).
In all countries except Canada, over 10% of 25-64 year-olds who had wanted to participate but did not reported family commitments as an obstacle. This is the most common barrier in Czechia, Poland and Sweden. Family obligations disproportionately affect women’s access to adult learning. On average across OECD and accession countries taking part in EU-AES, around 30% of women cited family commitments as an obstacle to participating in adult learning, compared to around 20% of men. In most countries, the gender difference in the share of adults who cite family commitments as a barrier is far wider than for other barriers. Indeed, in Bulgaria and the Slovak Republic, the share of men reporting family commitments as the reason why they did not participate is statistically too small to consider. Denmark and Norway are the only countries where men are more inclined than women to identify family commitments as a barrier to participation in education and training (Figure A5.3)
25-64 year-olds; in per cent of those wanting to take up education and training
1. Year of reference differs from 2022. Refer to the source table for more details.
2. Definition differs. Refer to the source table for more details.
3. Data represent only adults wanting to participate in non-formal education and training but did not.
Countries are ranked in descending order of the share of 25-64 year-old women who wanted to participate in education and training but could not due to family reasons.
See Table A5.2 for data and under Chapter A5 Tables for StatLink. For more information see Source section and Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en).
The lack of suitable education and training on offer is another obstacle to accessing learning opportunities, cited by 15% of adults on average (Table A5.2). Taken together, these barriers highlight the importance of providing flexible options which allow adults to move easily between education, training and employment throughout their lives. For instance, many countries have started offering modular learning programmes such as micro-credentials, which are intended to improve access to higher education, including for learners from underserved groups (OECD, 2022[2]). At the other end of the education spectrum, entry requirements often hinder adults with low educational attainment from pursuing education and training. To address this, many countries have implemented initiatives broadening the recognition of prior informal learning. For example, in Portugal, the New Opportunities Initiative (Iniciativa Novas Oportunidades) followed by the Qualifica Program (Programa Qualifica) have created opportunities for workers with low educational attainment to use the skills developed during their working lives to obtain a secondary education diploma (UNEVOC, 2016[4]).
Raising awareness of the benefits of adult learning would be a major way to engage the 54% of adults who are currently not participating in any formal and/or non-formal education (Table A5.1). In many countries, adults refrain from accessing education and training simply because they perceive no need to do so: on average, 70% of 25-64 year-olds who did not participate in adult learning activities reported it was because they did not need any further education or training. This share varies considerably across countries, ranging from 41% in the Netherlands to over 90% in Bulgaria and Lithuania.
25-64 year-olds; in per cent
1. Definition differs. Refer to the source table for more details.
2. Year of reference differs from 2022. Refer to the source table for more details.
Countries are ranked in descending order of the share of male non-participant reporting they have no need for education and training.
See Table A5.3for data and under Chapter A5 Tables for StatLink. For more information see Source section and Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en ).
There is a diverse pattern by educational attainment across countries in this area. In several countries, including Estonia, Italy and Slovenia, the proportion of adults reporting they had no need for education and training declines with higher levels of educational attainment. In about half of the countries with available data, it is individuals with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment who are most likely to cite a lack of need as the reason not to participate in adult learning. This trend is notably evident in Czechia, where the share of non-participating adults stating they had no need for further education and training is 13 percentage points higher among those with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment than among those with a tertiary education (Table A5.3).
The perceived need for education and training among non-participants also differs by gender. On average across OECD and accession countries taking part in EU-AES, 73% of men who did not participate reported it was because they had no need to, compared to 68% of women. There are no countries with available data where men are less likely to give this reason than women are. The gender difference exceeds 10 percentage points in Denmark, where 74% of non-participating men cited a lack of need, compared to 61% of non-participating women (Figure A5.4).
People are less inclined to believe they need education and training as they age. On average, 68% of 25-34 year-olds who were not participating in adult learning did not recognise any need to do so, rising to 71% among 45-54 year-olds and 74% among 55-64 year-olds. Luxembourg is the only country where the share of non-participants reporting they had no need for education and training is highest among 25-34 year-olds.
Adults refer to 25-64 year-olds.
Adult learning means the participation of adults in lifelong learning. In this chapter, the term “adult learning” is used interchangeably with the term “education and training”. Adult learning usually refers to learning activities after the end of initial education. The participation in education and training covers participation in both formal and non-formal education and training, defined in the Classification of Learning Activities (CLA) (Eurostat, 2016[5]) as:
Formal education and training is defined as “education that is institutionalised, intentional and planned through public organisations and recognised private bodies, and - in their totality - constitute the formal education system of a country. Formal education programmes are thus recognised as such by the relevant national education or equivalent authorities, e.g. any other institution in cooperation with the national or sub-national education authorities. Formal education consists mostly of initial education [...]. Vocational education, special needs education and some parts of adult education are often recognised as being part of the formal education system. Qualifications from formal education are by definition recognised and, therefore, are within the scope of ISCED. Institutionalised education occurs when an organisation provides structured educational arrangements, such as student-teacher relationships and/or interactions, that are specially designed for education and learning”.
Non-formal education and training is defined as “education that is institutionalised, intentional and planned by an education provider. The defining characteristic of non-formal education is that it is an addition, alternative and/or complement to formal education within the process of lifelong learning of individuals. It is often provided in order to guarantee the right of access to education for all. It caters to people of all ages but does not necessarily apply a continuous pathway structure; it may be short in duration and/or low-intensity; and it is typically provided in the form of short courses, workshops or seminars. Non-formal education mostly leads to qualifications that are not recognised as formal or equivalent to formal qualifications by the relevant national or sub-national education authorities or to no qualifications at all. Nevertheless, formal, recognised qualifications may be obtained through exclusive participation in specific non-formal education programmes; this often happens when the non-formal programme completes the competencies obtained in another context”.
Calculations for data based EU-Adult Education Survey (EU-AES) can be found at: https://circabc.europa.eu/ui/group/d14c857a-601d-438a-b878-4b4cebd0e10f/library/c28a2e5b-ecdf-4b07-ac2f-f3811d032295/details.
For more information see Source section and Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en).
All tables are based on EU-AES for European OECD and accession countries and the United Kingdom. National sources are used for Australia (Work-Related Training and Adult Learning), Canada (Labour Force Survey, November 2022 LFS Supplement on Labour Market Indicators), Costa Rica (Continuous Employment Survey), Israel (Labour Force Survey). For New Zealand, data from the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) Cycle 1 have been used in this chapter.
References
[5] Eurostat (2016), Classification of Learning Activities (CLA) Manual: 2016 Edition, Publications Office of the Euorpean Union, https://doi.org/10.2785/874604.
[2] OECD (2022), Education at a Glance 2022: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3197152b-en.
[1] Sekmokas, M. et al. (2024), “Updated framework for monitoring adult learning: Enhancing data identification and indicator selection”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 317, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/02bbacdc-en.
[3] Tyros, S., D. Andrews and A. de Serres (2023), “Doing green things: skills, reallocation, and the green transition”, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 1763, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/286a5007-en.
[4] UNEVOC (2016), New Opportunities, Portugal, International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training, https://unevoc.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/pubs/New%20Opportunities%20-%20Portugal.pdf.
Cut-off date for the data: 14 June 2024. Any updates on data can be found on line at http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-data-en.
25-64 year-olds; EU Adult Education Survey (EU-AES) or national surveys
Note: See under Chapter A5 Tables for StatLink and Box A5.1 for the notes related to this Table.
Source: OECD (2024). See Source section for more information and Education at a Glance 2024 Sources Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en).
In per cent of those who gave a reason for not participating; 25-64 year-olds; EU Adult Education Survey (EU-AES) or national surveys
Note: See under Chapter A5 Tables for StatLink and Box A5.1 for the notes related to this Table.
Source: OECD (2024). See Source section for more information and Education at a Glance 2024 Sources Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en).
EU Adult Education Survey (EU-AES) or national surveys
Note: See under Chapter A5 Tables for StatLink and Box A5.1 for the notes related to this Table.
Source: OECD (2024). See Source section for more information and Education at a Glance 2024 Sources Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en).
Table A5.1. Share of adults participating in education and training, by gender and type of education and training (2016 and 2022)|
Note: Education and training refers to formal and/or non-formal education and training. The reference period for participation in education and training is during the 12 months prior to the survey. 2016 data are available for consultation online (see under Chapter A5 Tables for StatLink). See Definitions and Methodology sections for more information.
1. Year of reference differs from 2022: 2020-2021 for Australia.
2. The data refer to the average of four quarters of a given year.
3. Year of reference differs from 2016: 2015 for New Zealand.
Table A5.2. Reasons for not participating in education and training among adults who wanted to, by gender (2022)
Note: Education and training refers to formal and/or non-formal education and training. The reference period for participation or not in education and training is during the 12 months prior to the survey. Data on barriers due to distance and health or age reasons are available for consultation on line (see under Chapter A5 Tables for StatLink). See Definitions and Methodology sections for more information.
1. Definition differs. Refer to https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/metadata/EN/trng_aes_12m0_sims_cz.htm for more information.
2. Year of reference differs from 2022: 2020-2021 for Australia, 2016 for the United Kingdom.
3. Data represent only adults wanting to participate in non-formal education and training but did not.
Table A5.3. Adults reporting they had no need for education and training as a share of those not participating, by gender, age group and educational attainment (2022)
Note: Education and training refers to formal and/or non-formal education and training. The reference period for non-participation in adult learning is during the 12 months prior to the survey. See Definitions and Methodology sections for more information.
1. Definition differs. Refer to https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/metadata/EN/trng_aes_12m0_sims_cz.htm for more information.
2. Year of reference differs from 2022: 2016 for the United Kingdom.
3. Data represent only adults reporting no need for non-formal education and training as a share of those not participating.
Please refer to the Reader's Guide for information concerning symbols for missing data and abbreviations.