In most OECD countries, the salaries of teachers increase with the level of education they teach. On average across OECD countries and other participants, the salaries of teachers with the most prevalent qualifications with 15 years of experience range from USD 52 631 at pre-primary level to USD 60 803 at upper secondary level.
Between 2015 and 2023, the statutory salaries of teachers at primary and secondary levels increased by 28-29% in nominal terms on average across OECD countries. When adjusted for changes in prices, the rise in real salaries was much smaller, at 4-5%.
On average, teachers’ actual salaries at pre-primary, primary and general secondary levels of education are 81-88% of the earnings of tertiary-educated workers across OECD countries, whereas school heads’ actual salaries are 22-38% higher than those of tertiary-educated workers.
Education at a Glance 2024
Pay and working conditions are important for attracting, developing and retaining skilled and high-quality teachers (see Chapter D5 for shortage of teachers in secondary education). Teachers’ salaries, in absolute terms and relative to those of other professions, can have a direct impact on the attractiveness of teaching as a career, though other aspects can also be influential (e.g. opportunities for professional development, administrative workload and image of teachers) (OECD, 2023[1]). They can influence decisions on whether to enrol in teacher education, to become a (Nagler, Piopiunik and West, 2020[2]) and whether to remain in teaching (Qin, 2020[3]): in general the higher teachers’ relative salaries are, the more attractive the profession. Salaries and career prospects can also have an impact on the decision to become and remain a school head. Relatively low salaries for school heads may discourage teachers from taking on the role (Pont, Nusche and Moorman, 2008[4]).
The salaries of school staff, and in particular teachers and school heads, represent the largest single cost in formal education (Chapter C6). While competitive salaries are a factor in improved learning outcomes of students (OECD, 2020[5]), they are not the only factor. As such, it is important for policy makers to carefully consider the salaries and career prospects of teachers and school heads to ensure both high-quality education systems and sustainable education budgets.
Teachers’ salaries can range quite widely within countries, as different qualification levels can be associated with different salary scales. For lower secondary teachers, the average salary for teachers at the top of the scale and with the maximum qualifications is 78% higher than the average starting salary for those with the minimum qualifications.
Between 2015 and 2023, on average across OECD countries with comparable data, the statutory salaries of teachers with 15 years of experience and the most prevalent qualifications increased by 5% at primary level, 4% at lower secondary level (general programmes) and 5% at upper secondary level (general programmes) in real terms.
About one-third of OECD countries pay teachers specific allowances for teaching in remote areas, but allowances for teaching in socio-economically disadvantaged schools are rare.
School heads’ actual salaries are more than 50% higher on average than those of teachers across primary and secondary education in OECD countries.
School heads are less likely than teachers to receive additional compensation for performing responsibilities over and above their regular tasks.
Statutory salaries are just one component of teachers’ and school heads’ total compensation. Other benefits, such as regional allowances for teaching in remote areas, family allowances, reduced rates on public transport and tax allowances on the purchase of instructional materials may also form part of their total remuneration. In addition, there are large differences in taxation and social benefits systems across OECD countries. There can also be substantial variation in salary scales of teachers and school heads at subnational level in some countries, based on local factors such as the cost of living (see Box D3.1). This should be kept in mind when analysing teachers’ salaries and making cross-country comparisons, along with potential comparability issues related to the data collected (see Box D3.1 of Education at a Glance 2019 (OECD, 2019[6]), Box D3.2 of Education at a Glance 2023 (OECD, 2023[7]) and Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en), and the fact that the data collected only cover public educational institutions.
All figures expressed in USD are converted from national currencies based on exchange rates that are adjusted for differences in purchasing power across countries (see Methodology section).
Teachers’ salaries can vary according to a number of factors, including their qualification levels, the level of education taught, and how much experience they have and what stage of their career they are in. They can also vary within countries if statutory salaries and compensation structures are defined at the subnational level (Box D3.1).
Teachers may enter the teaching profession with the minimum qualification or a higher qualification, which may be associated with a higher salary. In about three-fifths of OECD countries and other participants, teachers with the most prevalent qualification have the same salary range from those with the minimum qualification needed to become a teacher. In countries with different salary ranges for different qualifications level, very few teachers may hold the minimum or maximum qualifications (Table X2.8). For this reason, the comparative analysis on statutory salaries focuses on teachers who hold the most prevalent qualifications. Data on teachers’ statutory salaries are collected for three qualification levels (minimum, most prevalent and maximum), available at the OECD Data Explorer (OECD, 2024[8]). Data on teachers’ salaries at secondary level are collected only for teachers in general programmes although, exceptionally, the data for upper secondary teachers in vocational programmes were analysed in Box D3.3 in Education at a Glance 2023 (OECD, 2023[7]).
Teachers’ salaries vary according to years of experience. The OECD data collection on teachers’ salaries gathers information on statutory salaries at four points on the salary scale: starting salaries, salaries after 10 years of experience, salaries after 15 years of experience and salaries at the top of the scale. The analysis usually concentrates on the salaries of teachers after 15 years of experience as a proxy for mid-career teachers.
Teachers’ statutory salaries vary widely across countries. The salaries of lower secondary teachers in general programmes with the most prevalent qualifications after 15 years of experience range from USD 24 144 in the Slovak Republic to more than USD 100 000 in Germany and Luxembourg (Table D3.1).
Typically, teachers’ salaries increase with the level of education they teach. On average across OECD countries and other participants, the salaries of teachers (with the most prevalent qualifications after 15 years of experience) range from USD 52 631 at pre-primary level to USD 56 753 at primary level, USD 58 596 at lower secondary level and USD 60 803 at upper secondary level (Table D3.1).
Differences in teachers’ salaries between levels of education vary across countries. Notably, upper secondary teachers in Finland (with the most prevalent qualifications after 15 years of experience) earn 43% more than pre-primary teachers, and in Mexico, they earn 90% more. In Finland, these higher salaries at upper secondary level can be explained by the fact that upper secondary teachers need a higher qualification level than pre-primary teachers (for information on the most prevalent qualification see Table X3.D3.3 in Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes – https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en). In Mexico, the difference is mainly driven by the fact that teachers at upper secondary level have a different salary structure to those at other levels. In contrast, teachers in about one-quarter of OECD countries and other participants with available data earn the same salary irrespective of the level of education taught (Table D3.1).
Teachers’ salaries usually increase with each year of experience. On average, it takes about 26 years for lower secondary teachers (with the most prevalent qualification to enter the profession in 2023) to progress from the starting level to the top of the salary scale. In Australia, Colombia, New Zealand and Scotland (United Kingdom), salary scales are compressed to at most 10 years from starting to top of scale salaries (that is, faster salary progression over a few years), while others have more extended salary scales which give more incentive for teachers to serve for longer. Different approaches mean teachers’ salaries increase at different rates in different countries. For example, for lower secondary teachers in both Japan and the Netherlands, statutory salaries at the top of the salary scale are about double the starting salaries (for those with the most prevalent qualification to enter the profession in 2023) but it will take a teacher in Japan on average 36 years to reach the top of the scale, compared to only 12 years for their counterpart in the Netherlands (OECD, 2024[8]).
Teachers’ statutory salaries can vary significantly within countries, especially in federal countries where salaries may be defined at the subnational level. Differences in statutory or actual salaries can result, at least partly, from differences in the cost of living between subnational entities. Data provided by four OECD countries (Belgium, Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States) illustrate these variations at the subnational level.
The extent of the subnational differences in statutory salaries varies across these four countries, depending on the level of education and the stage teachers have reached in their careers. In 2023 in Belgium, for example, starting salaries for primary teachers differed by about 3% (USD 1 234), from USD 48 971 per year in the French Community to USD 50 205 in the Flemish Community. The largest differences were in Canada: starting salaries for primary school teachers varied by 59% (USD 25 575) across subnational entities, ranging from USD 43 083 in Quebec to USD 68 659 in Northwest Territories. Starting salaries in secondary education varied the least in Belgium (by 3%, from USD 48 971 in the French Community to USD 50 205 in the Flemish Community at lower secondary level) and the most in the United States (by 67% at lower secondary level, from USD 41 088 in North Carolina to USD 68 537 in New York) (OECD, 2024[9]).
In Belgium, the variation in statutory salaries between subnational entities remains relatively consistent across all levels of education and stages of teachers’ careers (a range of 3-7%). In contrast, in both Canada and the United Kingdom, the variations are similar at different levels of education, but greater for starting salaries than for salaries at the top of the scale. For example, at lower secondary level, starting salaries in the United Kingdom varied by 31% (USD 12 191) between subnational entities (from USD 39 677 to USD 51 868), but had narrowed to 6% (USD 3 590, from USD 61 511 to USD 65 102) at the top of the scale. In the United States, there was no clear pattern in the size of the variation of statutory salaries across subnational entities at different stages of teachers’ careers and levels of education. At lower secondary level, the difference was the smallest for starting salaries, noted above, and the widest for salaries after 15 years of experience, ranging from USD 53 355 to USD 102 640 (a difference of 92%, or USD 49 285) rather than for salaries at the top of the scale. The variation of the salaries after 15 years of experience across subnational entities is the largest at primary level (a difference of 99%) and the smallest at upper secondary level (a difference of 83%) (OECD, 2024[9]).
There are also large subnational variations in the actual salaries of teachers and school heads across the three countries with available data in 2023 (Belgium, the United Kingdom and the United States). In Belgium, the subnational variation in actual salaries was less than 11% for all levels of education for both teachers and school heads, and greater for school heads than for teachers. For example, at upper secondary level, teachers’ salaries in Belgium ranged from USD 84 604 in the French Community to USD 85 114 in the Flemish Community, a difference of less than 1%, or USD 510. In comparison, school heads’ salaries ranged from USD 119 594 in the French Community to USD 132 704 in the Flemish Community, a difference of 11%, or USD 13 110. Subnational variations in actual salaries were slightly bigger for teachers at lower and upper secondary levels in the United Kingdom and much larger for both teachers and school heads in the United States, where the average salaries of upper secondary school heads ranged from USD 92 037 in Arkansas to USD 157 964 in New York, a difference of 72%, or USD 65 927 (OECD, 2024[9]).
The extent of the subnational variation in teachers’ and school heads’ actual salaries also varies according to level of education. In the United Kingdom, the subnational variation in salaries of school heads is largest at secondary level, while for teachers the variation is greater at pre-primary and primary levels. In the United States, subnational variation in the average actual salaries of school heads was greater at primary level than at lower and upper secondary levels (OECD, 2024[9]).
Looking at the range of statutory salaries (where the minimum is the starting salary for teachers with the minimum qualifications and the maximum is the salary at the top of the scale for teachers with the maximum qualifications), on average the maximum teacher’s salary in lower secondary education is 78% higher than the minimum across OECD countries. However, the difference varies greatly across countries, from about 16% more in Denmark to more than three-folds in Colombia (Figure D3.2). These variations may signal differences in salary structures. For instance, Denmark has only one salary range irrespective of teachers’ qualifications, while Colombia has different salary ranges for teachers with different qualification levels.
In most countries and other participants where minimum salaries are below the OECD average, the maximum salaries are also below the OECD average. At lower secondary level, a notable exception is Colombia, where starting salaries are 32% lower than the OECD average, but maximum salaries are 45% higher. These differences may reflect the different career paths available to teachers with different qualifications. Maximum salaries are at least double minimum salaries in 10 OECD countries and other participants (Figure D3.2).
The difference between maximum salaries (which may only apply to a very small proportion of teachers) and the salaries of teachers with the most prevalent qualifications and 15 years of experience, also varies across countries. At lower secondary level, the gap between these two groups is less than 10% in seven OECD countries and other participants, while it exceeds 60% in eight others (Figure D3.2and Table D3.1).
Teachers’ actual salaries include all work-related payments, such as the base salary (as defined in the statutory salary scale), results-related bonuses, extra pay for holidays, allowance for performing certain tasks and other additional payments (see Definitions section). Across OECD countries and other participants, in 2023, the average actual salaries of teachers aged 25-64 were USD 46 475 at pre-primary level, USD 54 052 at primary level, USD 56 462 in general programmes at lower secondary level and USD 59 978 in general programmes at upper secondary level (Table D3.3).
Bonuses and allowances can be a significant addition to statutory salaries. At lower secondary level, 30 countries and other participants have data available on both the statutory salaries of teachers with the most prevalent qualifications after 15 years of experience (a proxy for mid-career salaries) and the actual average salaries of 25-64 year-old teachers. In one-third of these countries, actual average salaries are at least 10% higher than statutory salaries, which may reflect the importance of bonuses and allowances in the compensation system for teachers in these countries (Table D3.1 and Table D3.3).
Comparing teachers’ actual salaries to minimum and maximum statutory salaries also gives an indication of the distribution of teachers between the minimum and maximum salary levels. For example, at lower secondary level in Germany, the actual salaries of 25-64 year-old teachers are 16% higher than the minimum statutory salary, which is the smallest difference among countries with available data on both measures for the same reference year. This may be due to Germany’s relatively small range of statutory salaries (Table D3.1), combined with smaller additional allowances than in other countries. Meanwhile in Costa Rica and Poland, actual salaries are 23-24% higher than the statutory salary at the top of the scale (the largest differences among countries with comparable data), suggesting that allowances are having a substantial effect on teachers’ take-home pay (Figure D3.2 and Table D3.8, available on line).
Education systems compete with other sectors of the economy to attract high-quality graduates as teachers and to retain them in the profession. Teachers’ salaries relative to other occupations with similar education requirements, and their likely future earnings, may have an influence on whether individuals choose a teaching career (Nagler, Piopiunik and West, 2020[2]) or to stay in the profession (Qin, 2020[3]).
In most OECD countries, a tertiary degree is required to become a teacher at all levels of education (see Table X3.D3.3 in Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes – https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en), meaning that the likely alternative to initial teacher education would be a similar tertiary programme. Thus, teachers’ relative salary levels and labour-market conditions in different countries can be understood by comparing teachers’ actual salaries with the average earnings of other tertiary-educated professionals.
Two comparisons can be made. First, with tertiary-educated workers: full-time, full-year 25-64 year-old workers with tertiary attainment (ISCED levels 5 to 8). Second, with similarly educated workers, weighted by the proportion of teachers at each level of tertiary attainment. This second method ensures that comparisons between countries take into account differences in the distribution of bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral or equivalent attainment among teachers compared to tertiary-educated workers more generally (see Table X2.8 in Annex 2 for the proportion of teachers by attainment level, and Methodology section for more details. Box D3.2 of Education at a Glance 2023 (OECD, 2023[7]) covers various comparability issues related to measuring teachers’ relative salaries).
Young graduates may consider teacher’s statutory salaries relative to earnings of similarly educated workers over the course of their careers when considering teaching as a lifelong career (for earnings by field of study in tertiary education see Indicator A4 in Education at a Glance 2022 (OECD, 2022[10])). Data for lower secondary teachers with the most prevalent qualification to enter the profession in 2023 are available for 28 OECD countries and other participants. On average, teachers’ starting salaries in these countries and other participants are 61% of the average earnings of similarly educated workers aged 25-64, while those at the top of the scale reach 99% of average earnings (Figure D3.3).
In very few countries and other participants do teachers’ statutory salaries reach or exceed the earnings of similarly educated workers. In Korea, Luxembourg and Mexico, statutory salaries are at least 25% higher than the average earnings of similarly educated workers after 15 years of experience – and at least 60% higher for teachers at the top of the salary scale (Figure D3.3). In the countries where salaries do not exceed the average earnings of workers throughout teachers’ career, the most prevalent qualifications are usually a master’s degree (ISCED 7) (Table X3.D3.3 in Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes – https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en).
Where salary scales are compressed, teachers’ pay may catch up with that of other professions more quickly. For example, for lower secondary teachers in New Zealand with the most prevalent qualification, statutory salaries start at 59% of the average earnings of similarly educated workers, but reach 94% of the average earnings after 8 years on average. In contrast, Ireland has more expanded salary scales: relative starting salaries are similar in both countries (59%), but it takes 15 years to reach 94% of the average earnings of similarly educated workers, and teachers’ salaries continue increasing until they have 35 years of experience in the profession (Figure D3.3).
Similarly to statutory salaries, teachers’ average actual salaries, which reflect their total earnings, can be compared against either the earnings of similarly educated workers or all tertiary-educated workers. However, the data available only allow for the computation of averages of relative salaries when actual salaries of teachers are compared to earnings of tertiary-educated workers. Box D3.2 analyses teachers’ relative salaries by age group and by gender.
In almost all countries and other participants with available information, and at almost all levels of education, teachers’ actual salaries are lower than those of tertiary-educated workers. On average, primary teachers’ actual salaries amount to 81% of the full-time, full-year earnings of tertiary-educated 25-64 year-olds. Lower secondary teachers earn 84% of this benchmark and upper secondary teachers 88%. The lowest relative salaries are at pre-primary level in Hungary (47% of average earnings of tertiary-educated workers) (Table D3.2).
There are a few countries where teachers’ actual salaries reach or exceed those of tertiary-educated or similarly educated workers on average. Teachers earn more than tertiary-educated workers at all levels of education in Costa Rica and Portugal, and at upper secondary level in Germany. In Portugal, the actual salaries of teachers are at least 25% higher than the weighted average of earnings of similarly educated workers in Portugal (Table D3.2 and Figure D3.1).
The ratio of teachers’ average actual salaries to the average earnings of tertiary-educated workers (hereafter, relative salaries) by age group and gender provides insight into potential differences in the competitiveness of teachers’ salaries for different groups of teachers. This analysis focuses on lower secondary teachers (in general programmes) but the general trends are similar for pre-primary, primary and upper secondary levels (in general programmes) (Table D3.5, available on line).
Teachers' average actual salaries increase with age, except in Norway, Poland and Sweden where they are similar between the age groups 45-54 and 55-64. However, relative salaries across age groups show a different picture (OECD, 2024[8]).
In about two-thirds of the 22 countries and other participants with data by age group in 2023, the relative actual salaries of teachers aged 35-44, 45-54 and 55-64 were lower than those of teachers aged 25-34. This suggests that teachers’ salaries grow more slowly than the earnings of other tertiary-educated workers. The difference is the largest in Norway, where relative salaries fell by 14 percentage points between the 25-34 year-old and the 35-44 year-old age groups, and then continued to fall for older age groups. In contrast, in Poland, Romania and Slovenia, relative salaries for the three older age groups are all higher than for the youngest age group. Relative salaries of teachers increase as their age increases only in Romania, where the relative salaries for the oldest age group are 25 percentage points higher than for the youngest. In five countries, there is no clear pattern in relative salaries as the age increases (Table D3.5, available on line).
Comparing relative salaries of lower secondary teachers for 2015 and 2023 (or the latest available year), the 17 OECD countries and other participants with comparable data for both years show contrasting results. The relative salaries of 25-64 year-old teachers fell in all of them except Australia, Chile and Czechia. This trend is also generally true for the individual age groups. However, in four countries, relative salaries increased for some age groups over this period, most notably for 55-64-year-olds in Austria (by 10 percentage points) and Portugal (by 13 percentage points). Among the three countries where relative salaries of 25-64 year-old lower secondary teachers increased between 2015 and 2023, relative salaries only decreased for 55-64 year-old teachers in Chile (Table D3.2c in Education at a Glance 2017 (OECD, 2017[11]) and Table D3.5, available on line).
In most OECD countries, there are only small differences in the actual salaries of male and female teachers in public educational institutions. On average across OECD countries, the actual salaries of female teachers are 2% higher than those of male teachers at pre-primary level, less than 1% lower at primary and upper secondary level, and 0.1% at lower secondary level. Differences across countries and levels of education may result from differences in the distribution of teachers by qualification level or experience. At lower secondary level, female teachers’ actual salaries are 3% lower than their male counterparts in France, but 3% higher in Israel (OECD, 2024[8]).
However, the earnings gap between male and female workers is still wide in other professions, where women earned 88% of men on average across OECD countries in 2022 (OECD, 2023[12]). Consequently, teaching might be a more attractive career option for women than for men as this earnings gap means female teachers earn higher relative salaries than male teachers.
Across 22 countries and other participants with available data for 2023, the analysis of relative salaries of teachers by gender bears this out. At lower secondary level, the average actual salaries of male teachers (aged 25-64) are 75% of the average earnings of male full-time full-year tertiary-educated workers of the same age, while the value is 97% for female teachers (OECD, 2024[8]). Relative salaries are at least 10 percentage points higher for women than for men in all countries except Costa Rica (primary and secondary levels), the Flemish and French Communities of Belgium (primary), and Greece (pre-primary and primary levels). The gender difference in relative salaries is over 30 percentage points in favour of women in Ireland (primary and secondary levels), Israel (pre-primary, primary and lower secondary levels) and Portugal (Table D3.5, available on line).
On average across the 18 OECD countries and other participants where it is possible to compare data for 2015 and 2023 (or the latest available year), the increase in actual average salaries of lower secondary teachers was similar (in real terms) for women and men (by 7% for women and 5% for men). Despite this, in about three-quarters of these countries, the relative salaries of female lower secondary teachers fell further than for male teachers over this period. The relative salaries of female teachers fell by 42 percentage points in Greece, resulting in their average salaries falling below the average earnings of tertiary-educated female workers in this country. Czechia, Italy, the Netherlands and Sweden are exceptions to the trend, as both male and female teachers experienced similar falls in relative salaries. These reductions in relative salaries may mean the teaching profession has become less attractive to women in recent years. However, given both male and female teachers enjoyed similar increases in actual salaries, the greater fall in relative salaries for women shows that earnings of tertiary-educated workers increased more for women than for men during this period (see Chapter A4 for analysis on earning advantages of tertiary-educated adults by gender). This may reflect an overall improvement in the equality of earnings between men and women (Table D3.2c in Education at a Glance 2017(OECD, 2017[11]) and Table D3.5, available on line).
Note: The trend analysis uses data based on teachers’ actual salaries data in 2015 and 2022 for Chile, Czechia and Sweden. Denmark, Israel and Slovenia are excluded from the trend analysis due to a break in methodology in either data on teachers’ actual average salaries or data on average earnings of workers between 2015 and 2023.
Source: Table D3.2c in Education at a Glance 2017 (OECD, 2017[11]) and Table D3.5, available on line.
Nearly two-thirds of OECD countries have comparable data on the statutory salaries of teachers for both 2015 and 2023 for at least one level of education, based on teachers with the most prevalent qualifications after 15 years of experience. During this period, teachers’ statutory salaries increased in real terms (that is, in constant 2015 prices) in one-half to three-fifths of these countries depending on the level of education. On average across OECD countries, statutory salaries increased by about 5% at primary level, 4% at lower secondary level (general programmes) and 5% at upper secondary level (general programmes) (Table D3.6, available on line).
There were large changes in statutory salaries over this period in some countries. At lower secondary level, they grew by more than 20% in real terms in Chile, Colombia and Lithuania. The nominal increases were even larger, but inflation has cancelled out some of the nominal wage gains over the period (OECD, 2022[13]). In contrast, in 11 countries and other participants, real statutory salaries of lower secondary teachers have fallen since 2015. The largest decrease was in Greece where salaries fell by 9% in real terms. However, in nominal terms (that is, in current prices, not considering inflation), salaries remained stable between 2015 and 2023 (Figure D3.4 and Table D3.6, available on line).
Over the period 2015 to 2023, nearly half of OECD countries and other participants have comparable time series data for actual salaries at primary and secondary levels of education (for pre-primary level it is about one-third of OECD countries and other participants). On average across OECD countries and other participants with comparable data for all the reference years between 2015 and 2023, actual salaries in real terms increased by about 12% at primary level, 13% at lower secondary level and 13% at upper secondary level. About two-thirds of these countries showed an increase (in real terms) for all levels of education. The increase exceeded 20% in Estonia, Iceland (at pre-primary level), Israel (at upper secondary level), Latvia and the Slovak Republic, and it reached 90% in Lithuania. These differences may result from the combination of changes in the amounts of statutory salary or allowances that teachers received as well as changes in teachers’ characteristics (for example, more experienced teachers may earn higher salaries) (Table D3.7, available on line).
In four OECD countries and other participants with comparable time series data, the actual salaries of teachers in all levels of education fell in real terms. They decreased by at least 5% in Austria (at secondary levels), England (United Kingdom), the Flemish Community of Belgium (at upper secondary level), Finland (at primary and secondary levels) and Italy (at pre-primary and primary levels). As most countries showed increases in nominal terms, these falls were driven by the rate of inflation outstripping increases in actual salaries (Table D3.7, available on line).
School heads’ responsibilities may include educational activities (including teaching) as well as other administrative, staff management and financial responsibilities (see Chapter D4 in Education at a Glance 2022 (OECD, 2022[10]) for more details, including differences in the nature of the work carried out and the hours worked by school heads compared to teachers). Similarities and differences in the tasks and responsibilities expected of school heads and teachers may explain differences in the compensation of school heads compared to teachers.
Some countries have specific salary scales for school heads, who may or may not receive a school-head allowance on top of their statutory salaries. In other countries, heads may be paid according to teachers’ salary scales, with an additional school-head allowance. The use of teachers’ salary scales may reflect the fact that school heads may be teachers who have taken on management responsibilities of a school (that may have been accompanied by a reduction in their teaching responsibilities). In 13 out of the 36 countries and other participants with data available, lower secondary school heads (of general programmes) are paid according to teachers’ salary scales with a school-head allowance, while they have a specific salary range in the other 23. Of these, 16 countries and other participants have no specific school-head allowance and 7 include a school-head allowance in the salary (Table D3.12, available on line).
The amounts payable to school heads (through statutory salaries and/or school-head allowances) may vary according to the characteristics of the school or schools they lead, such as the size of the school based on the number of students or teachers. They could also vary according to the individual characteristics of the school heads themselves, such as the duties they have to perform or their years of experience (for the determinants of statutory salary and school-head allowance, see Table X3.D3.5 in Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes – https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en).
Considering the large number of criteria involved in the calculation of their salaries, the statutory salary data for school heads focus on those related to the minimum qualification requirements to become a school head, and Table D3.4 (available on line) shows only the minimum and maximum salaries (see the minimum qualification requirements in Table X3.D3.6 in Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes – https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en). Caution is therefore necessary when interpreting these values because minimum and maximum statutory salaries may refer to school heads in different types of schools and few school heads may earn these amounts in practice.
As with teachers, school heads’ salaries also vary widely across countries and levels of education. About half of OECD countries and other participants have similar pay ranges for primary and lower secondary school heads, while upper secondary school heads benefit from higher statutory salaries on average. The similar salaries at primary and lower secondary levels may result from the fact that school heads in many of these countries are in charge of schools providing both primary and lower secondary education (Table D3.4, available on line).
At lower secondary level, the minimum salary for school heads is USD 63 398 on average across OECD countries and other participants, ranging from USD 23 228 in Costa Rica to USD 128 103 in Luxembourg. The maximum salary is USD 105 480 on average, ranging from USD 42 554 in Poland (in Czechia the maximum of USD 38 889 excludes management allowances) to USD 180 633 in Mexico (Figure D3.5).
On average across OECD countries and other participants, the maximum statutory salary of a school head with the minimum qualifications is 80-85% higher than the minimum at primary and secondary levels. In 12 countries and other participants school heads at the top of the scale can expect to earn at least twice the statutory minimum salary in at least one of these levels of education; in Colombia and Costa Rica, they can even expect to earn more than three times the minimum salary at all levels of education (Table D3.4, available on line).
The difference between teachers’ and school heads’ salaries may provide incentives for teachers to become school heads (Pont, Nusche and Moorman, 2008[4]). The minimum statutory salaries for school heads with the minimum qualifications are higher than the starting salaries of teachers (with the most prevalent qualification at that level) in nearly all OECD countries and other participants: on average, minimum school heads’ salaries are 46% higher than teachers’ at primary level, 52% higher at lower secondary level and 51% higher at upper secondary level. The two exceptions are Colombia (at pre-primary and primary levels) and Costa Rica, where the minimum qualification requirement for school heads is lower than the most prevalent qualification for teachers starting out. The minimum statutory salary for school heads can also be higher than the top-of-scale salary for teachers. At lower secondary level, this is the case in about two-fifths of OECD countries and other participants (Table D3.1 and Table D3.4, available on line).
Similarly, the maximum statutory salaries for school heads are higher than the maximum salaries for teachers in all OECD countries and other participants with available data. At lower secondary level, the maximum statutory salary of a school head is 60% higher on average than the maximum for teachers (with the most prevalent qualifications). In Chile, Colombia, England (United Kingdom), Mexico and Scotland (United Kingdom), school heads’ maximum salaries are more than twice statutory teachers’ salaries at the top of the scale (Figure D3.2 and Figure D3.5).
Across OECD countries and other participants, average actual salaries for school heads (aged 25-64) ranged from USD 80 511 at primary level to USD 86 706 at lower secondary level and USD 92 714 at upper secondary level. School heads’ actual salaries are higher than those of teachers, and the premium (the difference in actual salaries between school heads and teachers, in favour of school heads) increases with levels of education. On average across OECD countries and other participants with data for both teachers and school heads, school heads’ actual salaries in 2023 were 50% higher than teachers’ at primary level, 54% higher at lower secondary level and 55% higher at upper secondary level (Table D3.3).
The premiums vary widely across countries and levels of education, however. The largest difference was in Slovenia at pre-primary level, where school heads’ actual salaries are 95% higher than those of teachers, and Italy at primary and secondary levels, where school heads’ actual salaries are more than twice those of teachers. The lowest premiums, of less than 30%, are in Estonia (at primary and secondary), Finland (pre-primary), France (pre-primary and primary), Iceland (pre-primary), Latvia (lower secondary) and Norway (pre-primary). In France, the low premiums can be explained by the fact that pre-primary and primary school heads are teachers relieved from part of their teaching duties. They are paid according to the teachers’ salary scale at this level of education, with the addition of a specific school-head allowance. Other countries show a steep rise in the salaries of school heads compared to teachers at secondary level, but a smaller difference at primary level. For example, in Ireland, school heads’ actual salaries are 42% higher than teachers’ at primary level, but 72% higher at lower and upper secondary level. In Costa Rica, Estonia, Poland and Slovenia, the difference is at least 5 percentage points more at pre-primary level than at primary and lower secondary levels (Table D3.3; see Box D3.1 for variations at the subnational level).
The career prospects of school heads and their relative salaries are also a signal to teachers of their potential career progression pathway and the associated compensation in the longer term. Not only do school heads earn more than teachers, they also, unlike teachers, typically earn more than similarly educated workers. A notable exception is Hungary, where school heads at all levels of education earn about 70% of the average earnings of similarly educated workers, the lowest among OECD countries (Figure D3.1 and Table D3.2).
Statutory salaries, based on pay scales, are only one component of the total compensation of teachers and school heads. School systems may also offer them additional payments, such as allowances, bonuses or other rewards. These may take the form of financial remuneration and/or reductions in the number of teaching hours. Decisions on the criteria used for the formation of the base salary and additional payments are taken at different levels of authority.
Criteria for additional payments vary across countries. In the large majority of countries and other participants, teachers’ core tasks (teaching, planning or preparing lessons; marking students’ work; general administrative work; communicating with parents; supervising students; and working with colleagues) are rarely compensated through specific bonuses or additional payments. Teachers may also be required to take on other responsibilities or perform some tasks without additional compensation although doing so often entails some sort of financial incentive (see Chapter D4 for the tasks and responsibilities of teachers and associated financial or other incentives).
At lower secondary level, teachers who participate in school or other management activities in addition to their teaching duties receive extra financial compensation in nearly two-thirds of the countries and other participants with available information. It is also common for teachers to be awarded additional payments, either annual or occasional, for teaching more classes or hours than required by their full-time contract, or performing special tasks such as training student teachers (Table D3.8, available on line).
Outstanding performance can also lead to additional compensation, either in the form of occasional additional or annual payments, or through increases in base salary. Additional payments can also include bonuses for special teaching conditions, such as teaching students with special needs in regular schools or teaching in disadvantaged, remote or high-cost areas (see Box D3.3 for more information on such allowances).
There are also criteria for additional payments for school heads, but fewer tasks or responsibilities lead to additional payments compared to teachers. Central/state government or top-level authorities and local authorities are the two main decision-making authorities on the entitlement criteria and the amounts of the allowances for school heads across countries (Tables D3.9 and D3.11, available on line).
Equitable access for all students to high-quality teachers is fundamental for an effective education system delivering high-quality education. Rewarding teachers for their performance and their efforts to improve their skills through continuing professional development can be ways to develop and maintain high-quality teachers.
Providing additional compensation to teachers teaching in challenging circumstances (such as in schools in remote areas or socio-economically disadvantaged schools) may also help to avoid disparities in the availability and quality of educational services within a country when combined with other measures. The literature shows that such allowances on their own have mixed effectiveness at filling teaching positions in remote or socio-economically disadvantaged schools (OECD, 2019[14]).
In 22 out of 38 OECD and accession countries and other participants with data, lower secondary teachers receive allowances for outstanding performance in teaching (Figure D3.6). This allowance can take various forms, usually some progression in the salary scale (i.e. a step increment) or a regular or occasional payment. The entitlement criteria for these allowances are set either at central/state level (in 9 countries and other participants), at provincial/regional level (in Japan), or through collective agreements (in Finland). In six countries, local or school level authorities have the power to determine the entitlement criteria as well as the amount of the allowance. In the remaining countries, more than one authority levels are involved in deciding the entitlement criteria and the amount of allowance (Tables D3.8 and D3.10, available on line).
Across OECD countries, financial rewards for successfully completing professional development activities are less common than those for outstanding performance. There are only 13 countries with data available which offer lower secondary teachers an allowance for successfully completing profession development activities (Figure D3.6). The fact that fewer countries provide an incentive for continuing professional development could be explained by the fact that it is required in most countries (Indicator D7 in Education at a Glance 2021 (OECD, 2021[15]) and so considered a statutory duty (e.g. in Croatia, Latvia, Slovenia and Switzerland). However, even when the successful completion of professional development does not directly result in a financial reward, it can be one of the criteria considered in advancing to a higher salary level (e.g. Colombia) (Table D3.8 available on line).
Data are available on allowances for three types of potentially challenging circumstances: teaching in remote areas, teaching in socio-economically disadvantaged schools and teaching in high-cost areas.
In most countries and other participants, the central or state authorities set the entitlement criteria and the amount of allowance (or the provincial/regional authorities in Japan). In Australia, Finland and Scotland (United Kingdom) there are collective agreements on statutory salaries which also detail the entitlement criteria for this allowance. Local authorities in Norway may decide to offer additional payments in areas where it is difficult to recruit teachers (Table D3.10, available on line).
As Figure D3.6 shows, lower secondary teachers receive allowances for teaching in remote areas in about one-third of the countries and other participants with available data (13 out of 39). In addition to the geographical disadvantages of living in remote areas, teaching in these areas entails additional challenges due to the constraints imposed by small schools (OECD, 2021[16]). Therefore, the allowances for teaching in remote areas are usually intended not just to make it easier to recruit teachers and but also to retain high-quality teachers in these areas (e.g. Israel, Japan and Norway).
On average across the OECD, about one in five teachers in schools with high concentrations of students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes are novice teachers (OECD, 2019[17]), who tend to move to other schools when they gain more experience (OECD, 2019[14]). Therefore, compensating experienced teachers for teaching in socio-economically disadvantaged schools can be key to provide incentives for them to stay in these schools and ensuring or improving equity in the education system.
Number of countries and other participants
Note: Information is displayed by country in Figure X3.D3.1 in Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en).
See Table D3.8, available on line, for data and under Chapter D3 Tables for StatLink. For more information see Source section and Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en).
Allowances for teaching in socio-economically disadvantaged schools are available for lower secondary teachers in Chile, France and Hungary. In France and Hungary, this is a fixed amount (a percentage of the base salary in Hungary, and a fixed amount complemented by a further amount depending on work-related objectives in France). In Chile, teachers are compensated by moving up the salary scale, a permanent increase that remains in place even if the teacher moves to another school (Figure D3.6 and Table D3.8 available on line).
Allowances for teaching in high-cost area serve a different purpose to the other allowances for teaching in challenging circumstances, as they aim to ensure that teachers’ salaries are competitive in that area. Three countries and other participants have such an allowance for lower secondary teachers. In Denmark and Finland, statutory salaries are supplemented by an additional payment (a regular payment and a percentage of the base salary respectively). In England (United Kingdom), teachers are moved to a pay range that is associated to one of four geographic regions with different costs of living. In Japan, there is an allowance for teaching in areas with high private-sector wages, which serves a similar purpose to the allowance for teaching in high-cost area, although it is not reported as such (Figure D3.6 and Table D3.8 available on line).
Teachers refer to professional personnel directly involved in teaching students. The classification includes classroom teachers and other teachers who work with a whole class of students in a classroom, in small groups in a resource room, or in one-to-one teaching situations inside or outside a regular class.
School head refers to any person whose primary or major function is heading a school or a group of schools, alone or within an administrative body such as a board or council. The school head is the primary leader responsible for the leadership, management and administration of a school.
Actual salaries refer to the annual average earnings received by full-time teachers/school heads aged 25-64 before taxes. It is the gross salary from the employee’s point of view: it includes the part of social security contributions and pension-scheme contributions that are paid by the employees (even if deducted automatically from the employees’ gross salary by the employer). However, the employers’ premium for social security and pension is excluded. Actual salaries also include work-related payments, such as school-head allowance, annual bonuses, results-related bonuses, extra pay for holidays and sick-leave pay. Income from other sources, such as government social transfers, investment income and any other income that is not directly related to their profession is not included.
Earnings for workers with tertiary education are average earnings for full-time, full-year workers aged 25-64 with an education at ISCED level 5, 6, 7 or 8.
Salary at the top of the scale refers to the maximum scheduled annual salary (top of the salary range) for a full-time teacher (for a given level of qualification of teachers recognised by the compensation system).
Salary after 15 years of experience refers to the scheduled annual salary of a full-time teacher. Statutory salaries may refer to the salaries of teachers with a given level of qualification recognised by the compensation system (the minimum training necessary to be fully qualified, the most prevalent qualifications or the maximum qualification), plus 15 years of experience.
Starting salary refers to the average scheduled gross salary per year for a full-time teacher with a given level of qualification recognised by the compensation system (the minimum training necessary to be fully qualified or the most prevalent qualifications) at the beginning of the teaching career.
Statutory salaries refer to scheduled salaries according to official pay scales. The salaries reported are gross (total sum paid by the employer) less the employer’s contribution to social security and pension, according to existing salary scales. Salaries are “before tax” (i.e. before deductions for income tax). Statutory salaries also include additional payments that all teachers or school heads receive and that constitutes a regular part of the annual salary, such as 13th month pay. In case of school heads, statutory salaries include the management allowance that all school heads receive for managing the school where applicable.
Data on teachers’ salaries at lower and upper secondary level refer only to general programmes.
In most countries, the criteria to determine the most prevalent qualifications of teachers are based on a principle of relative majority (i.e. the level of qualifications of the largest proportion of teachers).
The period of reference for teachers’ salaries is the school year 2022/23 where the school year begins on the second half of the calendar year 2022 and ends in the first half of the calendar year 2023, or otherwise, the school year 2023 where the school year starts in the first half of the calendar year 2023. For easier reference in the publication, the reference school year is noted as 2023.
Salaries were converted into equivalent USD using purchasing power parities (PPPs) for private consumption from the OECD Data Explorer on national accounts (OECD, 2024[18]). These PPPs refer to the calendar year and have been adjusted to refer to January 2023 for the conversion of salaries. Tables with salaries in national currency are included in Annex 2 (see Tables X2.3, X2.4, X2.5 and X2.6). To calculate the index of change in teachers’ salaries compared to 2015, the deflator for private consumption is used to convert salaries to 2015 prices. Reference statistics used in the calculation (PPPs and deflators for private consumption) are available in Table X2.7 in Annex 2. For more information, please see the methodology section of Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en).
In Table D3.2, the ratios of teacher salaries to earnings for similarly educated full-time, full-year workers aged 25-64 are calculated based on weighted averages of earnings of tertiary-educated workers (Columns 2 to 5 for teachers and Columns 10 to 13 for school heads). The weights, collected for every country individually, are based on the percentage of teachers or school heads at each ISCED level of tertiary attainment (see Tables X2.8 and X2.9 in Annex 2). The ratios have been calculated for countries for which these data are available. When data on earnings of workers referred to a different reference year than the 2023 reference year used for salaries of teachers or school heads, a deflator has been used to adjust earnings data to 2023. For all other ratios in Table D3.2 and those in Table D3.5 (available on line), information on all tertiary-educated workers was used instead of weighted averages. Data on the earnings of workers take account of earnings from work for all individuals during the reference period, including the salaries of teachers. In most countries, the population of teachers is large and may impact on the average earnings of workers.
For more information, please see the OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics (OECD, 2018[19]) and Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en) for country-specific notes.
Data on salaries for teachers and school heads are collected from the 2023 joint OECD/Eurydice data collection on salaries of teachers and school heads. Data refer to the school year 2022/23 (or the school year 2023) and are reported in accordance with formal policies for public institutions. Data on earnings of workers are based on the regular data collection by the OECD Labour Market and Social Outcomes of Learning Network.
References
[2] Nagler, M., M. Piopiunik and M. West (2020), “Weak Markets, Strong Teachers: Recession at Career Start and Teacher Effectiveness”, Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 38/2, pp. 453-500, https://doi.org/10.1086/705883.
[8] OECD (2024), “Education and Skills”, OECD Data Explorer, http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/5q (accessed on 10 September 2024).
[9] OECD (2024), “Education and skills - Subnational education indicators”, OECD Data Explorer, http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/5u (accessed on 10 September 2024).
[18] OECD (2024), “National accounts - Annual purchasing power parities and exchange rates”, OECD Data Explorer, http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/5t (accessed on 20 March 2024).
[7] OECD (2023), Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en.
[12] OECD (2023), OECD Employment Outlook 2023: Artificial Intelligence and the Labour Market, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/08785bba-en.
[1] OECD (2023), “What do OECD data on teachers’ salaries tell us?”, Education Indicators in Focus, No. 83, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/de0196b5-en.
[10] OECD (2022), Education at a Glance 2022: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3197152b-en.
[13] OECD (2022), OECD Economic Outlook, Volume 2022 Issue 2, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f6da2159-en.
[16] OECD (2021), Delivering Quality Education and Health Care to All: Preparing Regions for Demographic Change, OECD Rural Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/83025c02-en.
[15] OECD (2021), Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b35a14e5-en.
[5] OECD (2020), PISA 2018 Results (Volume V): Effective Policies, Successful Schools, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ca768d40-en.
[6] OECD (2019), Education at a Glance 2019: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f8d7880d-en.
[17] OECD (2019), TALIS 2018 Results (Volume I): Teachers and School Leaders as Lifelong Learners, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1d0bc92a-en.
[14] OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together: Rethinking Human Resource Policies for Schools, OECD Reviews of School Resources, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b7aaf050-en.
[19] OECD (2018), OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics 2018: Concepts, Standards, Definitions and Classifications, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264304444-en.
[11] OECD (2017), Education at a Glance 2017: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/eag-2017-en.
[4] Pont, B., D. Nusche and H. Moorman (2008), Improving School Leadership, Volume 1: Policy and Practice, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264044715-en.
[3] Qin, L. (2020), “Country effects on teacher turnover intention: a multilevel, cross-national analysis”, Educational Research for Policy and Practice, Vol. 20/1, pp. 79-105, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671-020-09269-3.
Cut-off date for the data: 14 June 2024. Any updates on data and more breakdowns can be found at the OECD Data Explorer – Education and Skills (http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/5q).
Annual salaries of full-time teachers in public institutions, in equivalent USD converted using PPPs for private consumption, by level of education
Note: See under Chapter D3 Tables for StatLink and Box D3.4. for the notes related to this Table.
Ratio of salary, using annual average salaries (including bonuses and allowances) of full-time teachers and school heads in public institutions relative to the earnings of workers with similar educational attainment (weighted average) and to the earnings of full-time, full-year workers with tertiary education, by level of education
Note: See under Chapter D3 Tables for StatLink and Box D3.4. for the notes related to this Table.
Annual average salaries (including bonuses and allowances) of teachers and school heads in public institutions, in equivalent USD converted using PPPs for private consumption, by level of education
Note: See under Chapter D3 Tables for StatLink and Box D3.4. for the notes related to this Table.
Table D3.1. Teachers' statutory salaries, based on the most prevalent qualifications at different points in teachers' careers (2023)
The definition of teachers' most prevalent qualifications is based on a broad concept, including the typical ISCED level of attainment and other criteria. The most prevalent qualification is defined for each of the four career stages included in this table. In many cases, the minimum qualification is the same as the most prevalent qualification. The minimum and the most prevalent qualifications are described in Table X3.D3.3 in OECD (2024) Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en).
1. Data on teachers in pre-primary education include salaries of kindergarten teachers (the majority).
2. Data includes the average of fixed bonuses for overtime hours for lower and upper secondary teachers.
3. Year of reference 2022.
4. Data excludes the social security contributions and pension-scheme contributions paid by the employees.
5. Actual salaries: Sweden (including teachers of general subjects within vocational programmes) and the United States (excluding bonuses and allowances).
Table D3.2. Teachers' and school heads' actual salaries relative to earnings of tertiary-educated workers (2023)
Where the year of reference for the earnings of tertiary-educated workers and the salaries of teachers differ, the earnings of tertiary-educated workers have been adjusted to the reference year used for salaries of teachers using deflators for private final consumption expenditure.
1. Reference year differs from 2023 for salaries of teachers and school heads: 2022 for Chile, Czechia, Slovenia and Sweden.
2. Data on teachers in pre-primary education include the data for teachers in early childhood education and care.
3. Data on earnings for full-time, full-year workers with tertiary education refer to the whole country: Belgium for the Flemish and the French Community of Belgium, and the United Kingdom for England and Scotland.
Table D3.3. Teachers' and school heads' average actual salaries (2023)
Where the year of reference for the earnings of tertiary-educated workers and the salaries of teacher differ, the earnings of tertiary-educated workers have been adjusted using deflators for private final consumption expenditure.
1. Reference year differs from 2023: 2022 for Chile, Czechia, Slovenia and Sweden; and 2021 for France.
2. Data on teachers in pre-primary education include the data for teachers in early childhood education and care.
See Annex 2, Definitions and Methodology sections and Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/e7d20315-en) for more information.
Data and more breakdowns are available on the OECD Data Explorer (http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/5q).
Please refer to the Reader's Guide for information concerning symbols for missing data and abbreviations.