International Migration Outlook 2024

3. Recent developments in migrant integration policy

Abstract

This chapter offers an overview of the principal changes in integration policy within OECD countries during the period 2023‑24, against the backdrop of geopolitical and economic instability, and the increasing numbers of humanitarian arrivals across the OECD. Alongside broader trends, such as the heightened focus on social integration and combating racism and discrimination, it places particular emphasis on initiatives aimed at tackling issues related to labour market integration and housing.

In Brief

Key messages

• Several OECD countries, including Iceland, Lithuania, Poland and Slovenia have revised or are developing broader integration strategies, reflecting both evolving migration trends and emerging challenges.

• Alongside new measures, the focus has recently been on improving capacity to deliver integration services to immigrant groups, with a focus on promoting active participation and improving access. This is pursued through various approaches, including improving reach to remote communities, digitalisation and targeting specific migrant groups.

• Enhanced civic integration activities are being promoted, focusing on identity, sense of belonging, anti-discrimination, attitudes, and values. Belgium and the Netherlands among others have revised their civic integration policies, with new requirements and responsibilities.

• The fight against discrimination and racism continues to be a top priority on policy agendas with new action plans and measures being put in place, especially in the European Union countries, with heightened concerns about antisemitism and Islamophobia.

• The renewed focus on citizenship laws continued, including in France, Germany, Korea and Sweden, extending a trend seen in recent years. Yet policy changes vary, reflecting their differing priorities.

• Increasing employment rates among foreign-born individuals is a priority across the OECD. Although overall employment outcomes for immigrants have improved over the last decade, they still lag behind those of native‑born individuals, with specific challenges faced by humanitarian migrants and asylum seekers.

• Many OECD countries are promoting sustainable and skills-appropriate integration for migrants. To ensure newcomers’ jobs are better aligned with their human capital, countries are enhancing skills recognition and validation, and investing in language training, upskilling, and reskilling.

• However, there is a recognition that these efforts should be balanced with swift entry into the labour market. New initiatives, such as Germany’s Job-Turbo, aim to ensure that entry into the job market is not delayed until sufficient language proficiency is achieved.

• The shortage of affordable and accessible housing is a significant challenge for the OECD as a whole, but it disproportionately impacts immigrant communities due to additional barriers they may face, including information gaps, lack of necessary documentation, and discrimination.

• In response, governmental actors and other stakeholders in various OECD countries, including the Netherlands, Norway and the United States, have implemented legal amendments, new policies, and support measures to offer financial assistance and other forms of support to enhance housing access for immigrants.

• Although data availability poses a challenge, estimates suggest that migrants are frequently overrepresented among individuals experiencing homelessness. In many cases, migrants are more than twice as likely to experience homelessness, being particularly at high risk in Sweden, Finland, Italy, Spain and Colombia.

• The housing situation is particularly challenging in the context of providing reception for the increasing numbers of humanitarian arrivals across the OECD, prompting countries to collaborate with diverse stakeholders to improve reception capacities. Several OECD countries, such as Italy, Greece, Spain and the United Kingdom, increasingly rely on external service providers and private households and individuals.

Introduction

In recent years, OECD countries have experienced unprecedented levels of immigration, resulting in a diverse influx of new arrivals. These increasing inflows have occurred against a backdrop of growing geopolitical and economic instability, raising tensions in societies worldwide. Consequently, host countries have intensified their focus on various aspects of integration, covering all stages of the process from reception to naturalisation. The surge in arrivals has exacerbated structural housing challenges, while the diversity of newcomers has led to varied labour market outcomes, prompting countries to reconsider their approaches to labour market integration to improve participation and outcomes for all groups of immigrants. This chapter will delve deeper into these themes, alongside key developments in integration policy over the past few years.

Main developments in integration policy

Host countries are improving their capacity to reach a broader range of immigrant groups

While OECD countries continue to develop new measures, policies and strategies (see Box 3.1) to improve integration support for immigrants, a shared objective among many OECD countries is to reach target groups more effectively and deliver existing services in an accessible manner to a greater number of immigrants. This is pursued through various approaches, including ensuring the active participation of newcomers in integration activities, improving access in remote communities and remotely, as well as ensuring specific groups such as migrant children are receiving necessary attention.

Several countries are enhancing newcomers’ responsibility to participate in integration programmes, often by making these programmes compulsory. Many OECD countries, including Austria, Denmark, Estonia and Lithuania, require humanitarian migrants to participate in integration and language learning programmes. Countries like Belgium and the Netherlands have recently expanded their obligation to a broader range of immigrant groups. With policy changes in 2023 in the Brussels-Capital Region, civic integration programmes are now mandatory for recent non-EU immigrants throughout Belgium. In other cases, integration programmes are no longer offered free of charge, as in Germany and Switzerland, in part to encourage immigrants’ commitment. However, there are often cost exemption provisions for low-income individuals.

OECD countries are also looking to better reach specific target groups. In recent years, there has been an increasing focus on women, particularly migrant mothers (OECD, 2023[1]), but countries also seek to support the inclusion of migrant children and ensure they are not overlooked by integration activities. Schools and educational systems are generally recognised as effective vehicles for integration for immigrant children, particularly refugee children, boosting their future labour market prospects, social inclusion and emotional well-being (Cerna, 2019[2]), but this requires that migrant children are enrolled and actively participating in education.

Recent large‑scale displacement crises impacting OECD countries have brought these target groups to the foreground. In Türkiye, the Ministry of Education reported that during the 2021‑22 period, 65% of Syrian school-aged children were registered in schools. The enrolment rate varied by education level, with 75% in primary schools and 42% in high schools. Similarly, school enrolment of displaced Ukrainian students has been a major issue across European OECD countries (OECD, 2023[3]). In 2023, UNESCO conducted a mapping exercise in seven European host countries (Bulgaria, Czechia, Hungary, Poland, Republic of Moldova, Romania and the Slovak Republic) and found that the estimated gross enrolment rate for displaced Ukrainian children in primary and secondary education across these countries was 43%, with individual country rates ranging from 4% to 59% (UNESCO, 2023[4]). This suggests that on average six out of ten displaced Ukrainian children were not at the time enrolled in host country schools.

To address these issues, different measures have been implemented to improve preschool and school enrolment of migrant children. In Sweden, new regulations require municipalities to inform caregivers about the purpose of preschool and children’s right to attend. Municipalities must also reserve preschool spots for children recently arrived in Sweden. These regulations were applied starting July 2023. Norway has also implemented temporary changes to the Kindergarten Act to better respond to the Ukrainian refugee situation, simplifying the establishment of temporary kindergartens and decreasing fees. Additionally, grants have been increased to recruit more kindergarten teachers in urban areas with significant living condition challenges and to strengthen language development for minority-language children. Romania has expanded education opportunities for Ukrainian children by creating educational hubs within facilities, recognising them as valid educational environments, and providing specialist human resources for Ukrainian-language schooling in several counties. In Japan, the government issued guidelines to local governments to promote school enrolment of foreign children and ensure they do not miss the opportunity to attend school.

Other countries are looking to expand the reach of integration efforts to remote communities. Most immigrants tend to settle in major urban centres. These are also the areas with the strongest scale and scope of integration support structures. However, immigrants living outside these centres often have more limited access to integration services due to their location. To address this disparity, several countries have undertaken initiatives to extend integration services to regions beyond major urban centres, ensuring that diverse immigrant groups are effectively reached. The United States, for instance, is seeking to better reach remote and underserved communities, stressing the importance of collaboration between local, state, and federal governments in these efforts. In Korea, local governments are encouraged to apply for consulting services to improve immigrant integration efforts, receiving evaluations of their policies and guidance on future goals. Korea Immigration & Integration Program (KIIP) helps foreigners acquire essential knowledge of the Korean language and culture. KIIP courses are now also provided at remote workplaces, such as in the shipbuilding industry, rather than solely at designated facilities, to improve access.

Box 3.1. Several OECD countries are revising integration strategies

In recent years, several OECD countries have revisited their integration strategies, reflecting both evolving migration trends and emerging challenges. For example, Germany has reoriented its integration policies to provide broader access to integration measures. Since the beginning of 2023, all asylum seekers, regardless of their origin or employment status, can now participate in integration courses. Additionally, the new right of residence includes eligibility for these courses. On 1 May 2023, the federal government introduced the “low-income rule,” granting cost exemptions for those receiving unemployment benefits or social assistance under the Fourth Regulation Amending the Integration Course Regulation.

Finland has renewed its core curriculum for integration training, emphasising language awareness, inclusion, and personalised career counselling. The new Integration of Immigrants Act, coming into effect in 2025, aims to improve integration efficiency and extend services to a broader immigrant population, including stay-at-home parents. This legislation also increases the responsibilities of municipalities in promoting integration. In April 2024, the government submitted an additional proposal to the parliament for further changes to the reform that would put a stronger emphasis on migrants’ obligations in the process.

Conversely, Italy has tightened its integration measures for certain groups. Following the shipwreck in Crotone on 26 February 2023, the government enacted Decree‑Law No. 20 of 2023, known as the “Cutro Decree”. This decree, converted into Law No. 50 on 5 May 2023, focuses on controlling entry for workers and reducing irregular arrivals. In addition, it modifies the reception procedures and services available for asylum seekers, including the removal of legal assistance, psychological support and Italian language teaching in first reception centres.

Other countries, such as Iceland, Lithuania and Slovenia, are looking to expand integration efforts more broadly. In Iceland, in May 2024, a White Paper on Matters of Immigrants was released. It includes a draft policy proposed over a 15‑year period. It sets out the government’s future vision, along with objectives and concrete targets. It covers the following areas: Participation, equality, and diversity, including targets on civic participation and poverty; Information, access and services, including targets on information provision and support for youth with migrant parents; Communication and language, including targets on the quantity and quality of Icelandic language services.

In Slovenia, the Act amending the Foreigners Act requires the government to adopt a comprehensive strategy for integrating foreigners into the cultural, economic and social life of the country. Meanwhile, Lithuania is developing a strategic approach to integration as part of the Development Programme for 2021‑30. Approved on 20 September 2022, this programme outlines analytical, regulatory, investment and communication activities to address emerging integration challenges.

Substantial changes are also underway in Poland. A roadmap for a new immigration policy is in development and is expected to pay much more attention to the inclusion of new arrivals, highlighting the need for enhanced integration measures to support the growing immigrant population.

Countries advance the digital transformation of integration services

Countries are also leveraging technology and digitisation to improve accessibility, enhance the user experience for immigrants, and remove barriers to participation and integration. In late 2023, Estonia introduced the “Settling in Estonia” life event service, a digital adaptation journey for newcomers available through the State Services Platform (eesti.ee). This service provides a centralised platform for accessing information and support on residence registration, language learning, cultural integration, education, healthcare, driving, and social benefits. By utilising this digital pathway, new immigrants can efficiently navigate their integration into Estonian society, ensuring a smoother transition and successful integration into their new community.

Germany has created the “Anerkennung in Deutschland” portal for recognising foreign professional qualifications. This platform includes the “Anerkennungs-Finder” search engine, available in 11 languages, offering a centralised resource for recognition procedures and contacts for relevant centres. The aim is to fully digitalise the associated procedures and, recently, the federal government started funding the digitalisation of the application processes through the platform, which is currently being piloted in six federal states for medical doctors.

Digitalisation efforts also apply to naturalisation. Canada has continued modernizing its citizenship provision, introducing digital services such as online applications in 2020 and electronic citizenship certificates in 2022. In June 2023, additional amendments were made to enhance processing efficiency, client service and programme integrity through electronic administration, automation and biometric information collection. In Ireland, from 16 October 2023, it became possible to apply for a certificate of naturalisation online, aligning with the broader goal of modernising the Irish immigration and integration system.

Social integration is gaining traction

The increasing diversity among migrant groups has raised public concerns across the OECD about potential differences in attitudes and values between foreign-born and native‑born communities, which may impact social cohesion in host countries. In response, policies and measures have been developed to enhance the social integration of newcomers. Social integration generally encompasses non-economic aspects such as identity and sense of belonging, discrimination, attitudes and values and civic participation.

In recent years, OECD countries have been actively enhancing their civic integration activities. Belgium revised the Flemish civic integration policy to promote economic self-reliance, active social participation, Dutch language acquisition and knowledge of Flemish values. Key changes include a 40‑hour social networking activity, compulsory registration with public employment services, a standardised social orientation test and a higher Dutch language proficiency requirement. As of September 2023, the mandatory programme is no longer free, with fees for Dutch courses, exams and social orientation lessons.

In Greece, the National Strategy for the Social Integration of Applicants and Beneficiaries of International Protection introduced a pre‑integration process. This process includes learning Greek and becoming familiar with the European way of life, principles of democracy, gender equality, sports, and special programmes on disability, prevention of domestic violence and the fight against human trafficking. Several initiatives have emerged from this strategy. One example is the “Multaka: Intercultural Tours in Athens” pilot project, which ran from June 2022 to June 2023. This project gave migrants, refugees and native‑born individuals with migrant parentage the opportunity to learn about Greek civilisation and history.

Finland has also transferred the civic integration obligation to municipalities, requiring them to provide multilingual civic orientation services starting in 2025. The aim is to offer immigrants essential information about Finnish society, living and working in Finland, and their rights and obligations in their native language or a well-understood language.

Civic integration activities are sometimes linked to broader naturalisation efforts. In the United States, the federal government continued issuing Citizenship and Integration Grants, totalling over USD 22 million to 65 organisations in 29 states in 2023. These grants support initiatives that promote civic integration by enhancing knowledge of English, US history and civics, and preparing immigrants for naturalisation. In addition to traditional programmes funding citizenship and English acquisition classes, the most recent grants include creative and innovative approaches to civic integration. These initiatives include a mobile citizenship clinic that brings services directly to low-income Spanish and Haitian Creole communities in Florida, and a comprehensive outreach and citizenship programme for senior immigrants in Maine. Moreover, new pop-up support centres have been established in various locations across the country to ensure new arrivals are well connected locally. The involvement of the private sector in these activities is seen as essential in fostering these local connections.

Fostering better local and social connections, as well as intergroup interactions, has emerged as a priority in other countries as well. In Luxembourg, since 2023, the term “intercultural living together” has replaced the concept of integration in the national context. Belgium has also implemented various activities in recent years to involve local communities. Within its integration policy framework, the Flemish Government launched the Plan “Living Together” in 2022, aimed at supporting local governments to promote living together in diversity. Building upon earlier programmes in Belgium, a new initiative called “Duo towards Inclusion” was introduced in the Walloon Region. This programme involves sponsorship, where a person voluntarily forms an individual relationship with a foreign person to foster intercultural exchange.

Canada’s Community Connections services continue to support locally based approaches that facilitate settlement and integration by addressing barriers and building welcoming and inclusive communities through activities such as conversation circles and learning activities for youth.

Despite the challenges in precisely defining social integration, a growing number of OECD countries, including Australia, Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Norway and Switzerland, have initiated specific surveys to measure social integration outcomes and are actively improving data collection in this field (OECD, 2024[5]). These efforts aim to establish a clearer understanding of the factors that facilitate or hinder progress in this area, both over time and across generations.

The fight against discrimination and racism remains high on policy agendas with renewed concerns about antisemitism and Islamophobia

The emphasis on social integration underscores the importance of viewing integration as a two‑way process, also involving acceptance and equitable treatment by the host community. However, many immigrants encounter prejudice and discrimination, which can create significant barriers to their integration. In response, OECD countries have taken active steps to address discrimination and racism, aiming to foster inclusive societies where everyone can thrive.

In Australia, the government launched the Multicultural Framework Review in June 2023, which was completed in the spring of 2024. The aim of the review was to explore ways for the government and local communities to work together to support a cohesive multicultural society and to advance a prosperous future for all Australians. The findings provide recommendations for potential reforms and actions.

In November 2023, the Norwegian Government launched a new Action Plan Against Racism and Discrimination for 2024‑27. This plan focuses on combating racism and discrimination in the labour market and in areas impacting young people in particular, such as education. Key measures include raising awareness among employers, enhancing diversity management, strengthening workplace rights and creating safer school environments. Diversity Advisers in schools will have expanded roles, and municipalities will receive support through funding, e‑learning and regional gatherings to share experiences. Additionally, a review of the enforcement apparatus is planned to ensure effective responses to racism and discrimination.

In the European Union countries, most recent developments have emerged from the momentum created by the publication of the EU Anti-Racism Action Plan (2020‑25) by the European Commission in September 2020. This plan emphasises an intersectional approach to anti-racism and anti-discrimination policies and the importance of monitoring. In the following years, many EU member states, including Belgium, Germany, Finland, France, Ireland, Poland, Spain and Sweden, have launched National Action Plans Against Racism (NAPARs).

Several countries are actively implementing new initiatives to combat racism and promote equality. In 2023, the Irish Government allocated funding to 24 NGOs and community organisations for projects aimed at combating racism and fostering racial equality and community cohesion. Germany has also undertaken several initiatives. In 2023, the “respekt*land – Antidiskriminierungsberatung für ganz Deutschland” (anti-discrimination advice for all of Germany) was launched by the Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency. With a budget of up to EUR 5 million, this programme aims to expand the civil society network of advice centres and enhance support for discrimination cases. As part of the “Self-determined Networking, Remembrance, and Education” project, the Federal Anti-Racism Commissioner also supports initiatives to address racist and right-wing extremist attacks. The goal is to promote professional, accessible anti-racism advice through migrant organisations to better support affected individuals and enhance the documentation and monitoring of racist incidents.

In Spain, efforts are underway to improve co‑ordination in combating discrimination and racism. This includes the European CISDO project (November 2022‑24), co‑ordinated by OBERAXE (the Spanish Observatory on Racism and Xenophobia). This project involves stakeholders such as the National Hate Crimes Office, law enforcement agencies, academic institutions, local councils, and consultancy firms. It aims to enhance the training of police forces, promote co‑operation between law enforcement and civil society, provide better support for victims and generate scientific evidence on the effectiveness of learning networks in combating discriminatory incidents.

Despite these new action plans and initiatives, discrimination and racism remain pressing challenges. Following the Hamas’ terrorist attacks on Israel on 7 October 2023, there has been a significant increase in antisemitism and Islamophobia in many OECD countries. In the United States alone, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) recorded 3 291 antisemitic incidents in the three months after 7 October, a 360% increase compared to the same period the previous year (ADL, 2024[6]). Similarly, the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) reported 3 578 complaints of anti-Muslim and anti-Palestinian discrimination and hate during the same period, marking a 180% rise from the previous year (CAIR, 2024[7]). In response to rising tensions, several OECD countries have introduced additional measures against antisemitism. Austria extended compulsory orientation and values courses for newcomers from one day to three days, including a new module on antisemitism. In Germany, the “respekt*land” initiative has been supplemented with a project to strengthen and expand advice on antisemitic incidents nationwide. In July 2024, Australia appointed a special envoy to combat antisemitism and announced plans to also appoint an envoy to address Islamophobia, aiming to preserve social cohesion amid rising tensions.

Citizenship laws continue to be updated and refined

The resurgence of interest in citizenship laws persists, marking a continued trend in recent years. Countries have adopted diverse policies, reflecting diverse priorities and responses to global migration trends.

Germany has eased access to citizenship. On 26 March 2024, Germany finalised the legislative process for a new citizenship law, which entered into force on 27 June 2024. This law reduces the residency period required for naturalisation from eight to five years, or even three years in exceptional cases. It also allows German citizens to hold multiple citizenships, a notable shift from previous restrictions. Additionally, children born to foreign nationals in Germany will receive citizenship at birth if at least one parent has resided in Germany for five years and holds permanent residency, down from the previous requirement of eight years. These changes aim to increase the uptake of German citizenship and make Germany a more attractive labour market for foreign talent.

Other countries have introduced changes aimed at specific groups. Australia has introduced pathways to naturalisation for New Zealand citizens. From 1 July 2023, New Zealand citizens who have been living in Australia for four years or more can directly apply for Australian citizenship without first obtaining a permanent visa. Meanwhile, Korea introduced a fast-track policy in 2023 to grant permanent residence or citizenship to outstanding foreign talent. This policy applies to foreign-born holders of a master’s degree or doctorate from Korean institutions specialising in science and engineering. The previously lengthy process has been simplified to a three‑step procedure, allowing eligible individuals to attain permanent residence or citizenship in just three years.

In some cases, these changes focus specifically on minors. In Belgium, the Nationality Code has been amended to simplify the process for stateless children. Legal recognition as a stateless person is no longer required to grant Belgian nationality to a child born in Belgium without nationality. Ireland has also made legislative changes impacting the naturalisation of minors. In 2023, the residency requirement for children born in Ireland to non-Irish parents was reduced from five years to three years. Additionally, there were adjustments in the assessment process for naturalisation applications on behalf of minors. Previously, the residency duration and good character of parents were considered, but now only the residency and good character of the child are assessed.

Conversely, some countries have introduced more restrictive measures. France has implemented several restrictions as part of its new immigration law, which came into force on 27 January 2024. These include limiting jus soli citizenship. Children born in France to foreign parents must now apply for citizenship between the ages of 16 and 18 rather than receiving it automatically upon reaching the age of majority. Additionally, the required proficiency level in French for citizenship has been raised from B1 to B2.

Finland and Sweden are also looking to tighten their citizenship laws. In Finland, proposed amendments to the Citizenship Act, submitted in April 2024, would extend the residency period required for Finnish citizenship from five to eight years. Only time spent in Finland under a residence permit would be considered when calculating the residency period, excluding the time taken to process an asylum application.

On 29 May 2024, the Swedish Parliament adopted amendments to the Citizenship Law, establishing stricter requirements for obtaining citizenship through notification, primarily for children. These changes are expected to take effect in autumn 2024. Additionally, further changes are planned for the coming years, including new requirements for Swedish language skills. An inquiry launched in September 2023 will consider extending the residency period, imposing more stringent criteria for self-sufficiency and an honest lifestyle, requiring additional knowledge of Swedish society and culture, and mandating a declaration of loyalty.

OECD countries seek to balance speedy labour market entry with sustainable, skills-appropriate integration

Improving employment rates for foreign-born individuals is a priority

In the past decade, OECD countries have experienced an increase in various categories of migrants, each with diverse socio‑economic integration trajectories and outcomes. OECD countries are welcoming rising numbers of labour migrants, who arrive with job opportunities or manage to secure them quickly. However, other migrant groups often face less favourable outcomes, with foreign-born individuals generally exhibiting lower employment rates. Across the EU, for instance, 65% of immigrants are employed, compared with 69% of the native‑born population (OECD/European Commission, 2023[8]). The gaps are more marked for humanitarian migrants, who often encounter delays in entering the labour market and tend to have poorer labour market outcomes.

Countries’ concerns about differences in immigrants’ labour market outcomes have been further heightened by the inflows of displaced persons from Ukraine. While overall these arrivals have integrated into the labour market more quickly than other refugee groups in the past, their outcomes vary significantly by country. Employment levels of displaced persons from Ukraine reach 50‑60% in some countries, while in others, they are just around 20% (EMN/OECD, 2024[9]). There are also significant skills mismatches hidden behind these figures.

On a positive note, immigrants’ overall employment outcomes have improved over the last decade (OECD/European Commission, 2023[8]). While this improvement is partly driven by labour market conditions and better educational levels of newcomers, enhanced integration policies and support measures also play a role. This trend is encouraging many OECD countries to invest time and resources into labour market integration activities to improve employment rates of all immigrants.

France has made labour market integration one of the top priorities in the field of migration and integration. The overarching goal is to help foreign nationals become economically independent and self-sufficient, interact more with society, and fill job vacancies in short-staffed sectors through improved language training and employment support. Key efforts here include using the public employment service to assist with job-seeking, promoting the acquisition of new work experience, job preparation, learning French for professional purposes, and mentoring. Special actions are aimed at immigrant women in France, who face more challenges, including a 30% unemployment rate and lower participation in the labour market.

In Australia, AUD 17.8 million was allocated in 2023 to the Economic Pathways to Refugee Integration (EPRI) programme. This programme aims to increase employment rates for refugees and humanitarian entrants with lower skill levels and limited English proficiency. Services provided under the EPRI programme include work experience and on-the‑job training, supplementary English and skills training, qualifications, case management, business mentoring and advice, and direct placement into ongoing employment.

Some countries are adopting sector-specific measures to address both labour market integration and labour shortages. Slovenia adopted amendments to the Act on Employment, Self-Employment, and Work of Foreigners on 7 April 2023, which, among other things, streamline employment in the health and social care sectors, particularly for employers established by the state, including health centres, homes for the elderly, occupational care centres and public social care institutions. Czechia has similarly introduced specific measures for the healthcare sector, particularly for Ukrainian health workers who face language barriers that prevent them from passing recognition examinations. These include implementing a temporary professional practice permit, allowing these workers to gain professional or practical experience for 12 months under direct supervision. This internship regime helps them improve their language skills, understand the Czech healthcare system and prepare for the examination. In Japan, the focus is on promoting employment for foreign workers in professional and technical fields through Employment Service Centres for Foreigners located in Tokyo, Aichi, Osaka and Fukuoka. These centres offer job consultation, placement and employment management support.

Policies and measures increasingly seek to promote skills-appropriate labour market integration

While enhancing labour market participation and employment rates is deemed crucial, an increasing number of OECD countries are implementing integration policies to ensure that newcomers’ employment aligns with their skill levels. These measures aim to address skills mismatches and foster the development of migrants’ human capital in ways that benefit host communities and local labour markets. However, the approaches to achieving these goals vary across countries and are concentrated in different areas.

Efficient recognition of skills and qualifications is an essential part of effective labour market integration. In practice, however, over the past 15 years, the number of individuals seeking recognition of diplomas acquired abroad has not significantly changed on average in European countries. Yet who have their qualifications recognised are three times more likely to find jobs that match their skills compared to those unable to navigate the complex, costly, or obscure recognition procedures (OECD, forthcoming[10]). There is a growing recognition among policy makers that improving these systems could thus help many individuals find appropriate employment.

In 2023, the Global Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education came into effect, supporting the UN Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4). Alongside enhancing higher education quality and increasing student mobility, it also aims to improve the recognition of academic credentials globally and to standardise recognition procedures. OECD countries party to this convention include Australia, Estonia, Finland, France, Hungary, Iceland, Japan, Lithuania, Norway, the Slovak Republic, Sweden and the United Kingdom.

As it is a long-standing issue, OECD countries have put in place a variety of their own measures and policies to ease the recognition of skills and qualifications procedures for newcomers. In Quebec, Canada, the Foreign Credential Recognition Loan Program (PRTCE) offers financial assistance to organisations facilitating low-interest loans for individuals trained abroad. These loans help overcome financial barriers to diploma and professional qualification recognition in Quebec, supporting individuals in having their skills acknowledged. In Denmark, employers can request a “turbo assessment” of foreign diplomas from the Danish Agency for Higher Education and Science for specific recruitment processes. This free service, typically completed within five business days, evaluates formal diplomas and qualifications but does not consider professional experience or short courses. It is particularly useful for preselected candidates and salary determination but does not apply to regulated professions, for which the Agency directs applicants to the relevant authority.

Newer measures are being introduced as well. In Germany, the Service Centre for Professional Recognition (ZSBA) has been established under the Skilled Immigration Act, aimed at skilled workers who are still abroad, to start the recognition procedures before their arrival. Besides ensuring smoother labour market transitions for potential migrants looking to move to Germany, the ZSBA reduces pressure on the competent authorities by providing counselling before and during the recognition procedure and has made processes more transparent. It was established as a temporary service, but the federal government is considering making it permanent by 2026. Another pilot programme was also launched in Germany, lasting until mid‑2024, offering a “recognition grant” of up to EUR 600 (or up to EUR 3 000 for adaptation measures) for low-income workers.

Proficiency in the host-country language is crucial for leveraging the skills of newcomers and accessing skilled employment. Boosting language acquisition for improved labour market integration is a shared theme across the OECD. In Australia, the Department of Home Affairs approved 18 innovative projects from eight Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP) service providers in 2022 to enhance client guidance and flexible English tuition delivery in community and work settings. These projects support employment pathways in sectors such as hospitality, beauty, horticulture, domestic assistance, public service, and social enterprises, with specific support for Afghan women, youth, survivors of trauma, and disengaged clients. Meanwhile, Sweden has increased funding for language training for employees in elderly care, following the COVID‑19 pandemic which highlighted the need to strengthen Swedish language skills in this sector. In Lithuania, all third-country nationals can now apply to the Employment Service to learn the state language if their residence permit in Lithuania is valid for at least one year.

Several OECD countries are enhancing training, reskilling, and upskilling opportunities for new arrivals and foreign-born communities, with a particular focus on improving on-the‑job and vocational training. In Switzerland, the “Préapprentissage d’intégration” (PAI, Pre‑apprenticeship for Integration) programme aims to prepare migrants for a nationally certified apprenticeship over a one‑year period, thereby accelerating and sustaining their socio‑economic integration. Initially launched in 2018, the programme has been continuously improved. Since 2024, adolescents and young adults arriving in Switzerland who need training are systematically identified, informed, and connected with career guidance services soon after their arrival by population services or migration authorities. Once evaluated, those suitable for the PAI can participate and prepare for an apprenticeship.

In Germany, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research runs the “Berufliche Orientierung für Personen mit Flucht- und Migrationserfahrung “ (BOFplus, Vocational Orientation for People with Refugee or Migration Experience) programme. Building on the experience of an earlier programme, this initiative, launched in 2024, prepares immigrants who are beyond compulsory school age and require special support and language assistance for vocational training through courses lasting up to 26 weeks. Participants receive technical language and subject-specific training, as well as individual social and professional support. Prospective participants have the opportunity to attend a preliminary orientation phase at the vocational training centre before committing to the programme.

Since 2023, the Danish Government has partnered with the Confederations of Danish Employers, the Danish Trade Union Confederation, and the National Associations of Local Governments to expand “The Efficient Job and Training Programme”. This new agreement targets all refugees and family migrants aged 18‑50 who have lived in Denmark for up to 20 years and face difficulties entering the labour market.

Some of the training and reskilling initiatives target specific groups of arrivals, such as displaced Ukrainians (OECD, 2024[11]). In October 2023, UNITAR launched “Bolstering Livelihoods: Digital Reskilling for Ukrainian Women Evacuees in Poland”, funded by Japan. This six‑month hybrid programme trained about 500 women in high-demand digital skills to boost employment prospects and income potential. It also guided participants in developing socially responsible digital start-ups and building leadership and entrepreneurial skills. In Czechia, UNICEF introduced the CESTY Initiative, a partnership designed to support displaced Ukrainian youth through three skills-building pathways: (1) paid internships and apprenticeships, (2) low-skilled labour with access to professional development and language acquisition, and (3) scholarships covering basic needs for full-time study. The project aims to connect 1 500 displaced Ukrainian youth with these opportunities in 2024 through collaboration with the private sector. UNICEF plans to expand this initiative to other host countries.

The Ukrainian displacement crisis has prompted broader changes for all newcomers. A notable example is Germany’s Job-Turbo initiative, launched in October 2023 to promote the labour market integration of displaced Ukrainians. This programme frames the labour market integration of all refugees as a multi-phase journey, where entry into the job market is not postponed until adequate language proficiency is achieved. Phase 1 involves arrival, orientation, and acquiring basic language skills through integration courses. Individuals who find jobs that do not require German skills can start work immediately. During Phase 2, the individual is expected to focus on entering the training and job market, as prolonged unemployment makes returning to work harder. Job centres and employment agencies connect integration course graduates with suitable employers. In this phase, refugees’ skills and qualifications are also recorded, and further integration steps are established in integration agreements. Adherence to these plans is required to avoid benefit reductions. Phase 3 shifts to developing and consolidating skills, promoting sustainable employment and professional development. Companies are encouraged to employ refugees, even with limited German (below B2 level), and upskill them while they work, utilising support from the German state. Various funding options are available for recognising foreign vocational qualifications, including compensatory measures and additional language training support.

Switzerland is also looking into ways to improve the labour market integration of displaced persons from Ukraine, with the objective of achieving 40% employment by the end of 2024. To support these efforts, the Federal Department of Justice and Police (FDJP) has appointed a labour market integration counsellor tasked with strengthening relationships with the private sector. Additionally, the Federal Council plans to simplify the recognition of qualifications, promote registration with regional employment centres (RAVs), including exploring the possibility of making it a legal obligation, and improve the services offered there. Together with industry and academia, an employment platform tailored to the needs of refugees is being developed as well.

Housing challenges faced by immigrants across the OECD

Newcomers are particularly affected by housing affordability and availability, prompting different support measures

Access to affordable and accessible housing remains a major global challenge. Housing concerns are widespread among the OECD population. In 2022, on average across the OECD, 49% of those aged 30 to 54 and 38% of people aged 55 to 64 expressed some level of concern about finding and maintaining adequate housing. However, young adults aged 18 to 29 are particularly affected, with 60% indicating worries about housing (OECD, 2022[12]). Housing plays a crucial role in life, impacting personal health, well-being, education, leisure and work opportunities. It also absorbs a significant share of household income in OECD countries. In 2022, housing-related expenditure constituted the single‑highest household expenditure item across the OECD, averaging around 22.5% of final household consumption expenditure for OECD countries (OECD, 2022[12]). These costs are also rising, often faster than incomes. From 1995 to 2021, the share of housing-related expenditure increased on average by 15% in the OECD, with notable variations across different countries. For instance, between 1995 and 2022, the share of housing expenditure in total household expenditure surged by over 80% in Ireland and by more than 50% in Spain (OECD, 2022[12]).

The reasons behind the current housing challenges within the OECD are multifaceted and stem from interconnected issues such as broader structural problems in the housing market, the consequences of the COVID‑19 pandemic, Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine, high inflation, labour shortages in construction and the transition to low-carbon economies, all of which directly or indirectly impact the housing sector (OECD, 2023[13]). The housing market has seen a decline in residential investments, largely driven by the increase in interest rates over the past two years. Between the first quarter of 2022 and the last quarter of 2023, residential investment fell by nearly 6.5% in the median OECD economy, with even larger declines observed in some G7 economies, including the United States (OECD, 2024[14]).

Immigrants frequently encounter distinct obstacles regarding housing, which affect their integration into host communities. Securing housing is vital for migrants, as it is often essential for obtaining employment and accessing services such as education, healthcare and social support. Yet newcomers often face numerous additional difficulties in finding housing, including information gaps, bureaucratic hurdles, missing documentation (such as proof of previous rent payments and references), limited access to financial and housing aid and discrimination, among other issues.

Consequently, 26% of immigrants live in substandard housing, compared to 20% of native‑born individuals (OECD/European Commission, 2023[8]). More than one in six immigrants live in overcrowded conditions in both the OECD and the EU, a rate 70% higher than that of the native‑born in the EU. Homelessness among migrants is also a challenge in several OECD countries (Box 3.2). At the same time, about one in five immigrants in the EU reports spending over 40% of their disposable income on rent, compared to roughly one in eight native‑born individuals. Additionally, migrants are more likely to reside in overcrowded and substandard housing. Immigrants also have lower home ownership rates compared to their native‑born counterparts. In the EU, immigrants are approximately half as likely to own their homes as native‑born residents. The disparity is most pronounced in Southern Europe, Latin America and Korea.

Box 3.2. Estimates suggest that migrants are overrepresented among individuals experiencing homelessness in the OECD

Currently, comprehensive and comparable data on homelessness among migrants in the OECD is lacking, as fewer than half of OECD and EU countries include migrants in their national homelessness statistics (Table 3.1). Most OECD and EU countries do not report homelessness statistics disaggregated by migrant status, and those who do, often identify “migrants” on the basis of citizenship rather than country of birth.

There are various methodological challenges contributing to this situation. These include differences across countries in how migrants are defined in homelessness statistics, general methodological issues in measuring homelessness more broadly (such as the lack of a harmonised definition), and specific issues affecting migrants that can lead to their exclusion from official statistics. For example, data collection methods based on service points may not capture migrants who lack access due to their status.

Where data is available, estimates indicate that migrants tend to be significantly overrepresented among individuals experiencing homelessness. It is not uncommon that migrants are at least twice as likely to find themselves in this situation, especially in Colombia, Finland, Italy, Spain and Sweden. In Luxembourg, over 90% of beneficiaries of the “Winter Action Programme” for the homeless did not have Luxembourgian citizenship, with approximately half being nationals of an EU country. In Spain, around half of those using homeless services are not Spanish citizens. In Austria, the Netherlands and Sweden, more than 40% of individuals experiencing homelessness have a migration background or are non-citizens. Moreover, it is likely that official statistics on homelessness underestimate the proportion of migrants experiencing homelessness, so the actual overrepresentation could be even higher than those shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1. Share of migrants among people experiencing homelessness in OECD countries

Country	Share of migrants as percentage of total population experiencing homelessness	Estimated share of migrants among the homeless population relative to their population share	Year
Austria	Around 43% of people experiencing homelessness do not possess Austrian citizenship.	2.4	2020
Belgium	In Gent, 54% of people experiencing homelessness do not possess Belgian citizenship. In Liège, nearly 34% of people experiencing homelessness do not possess Belgian citizenship.	3.4 (Ghent), 1.7 (Liège)	2021
Canada	13% of people experiencing homelessness entered Canada as immigrants, refugees, or refugee claimants.	0.6	2022
Colombia	16% of people experiencing homelessness were born outside Colombia.	4.3	2021
Costa Rica	Around 21% of people experiencing homelessness do not possess Costa Rican citizenship.	2.1	2019
Denmark	22% of people experiencing homelessness do not possess Danish citizenship. Official data only include migrants with permanent residency. Data on homelessness among migrants without permanent residency are collected, but not reported.	2.2	2022
Finland	24% of the homeless population ‘’living alone’’ does not possess Finnish citizenship or does not have Finnish or Swedish as a mother tongue. Official data only include migrants who are included in the population register.	4.4	2023
Germany	28% of people experiencing homelessness did not have German citizenship	2	2022
Ireland	Among people experiencing homelessness for whom information on citizenship is available (the non-response rate for this question was 53%), 35% do not possess Irish citizenship.	2.2	2022
Italy	38% of people experiencing homelessness did not have Italian citizenship.	4.4	2021
Luxembourg	Around 91% of the beneficiaries of the Winter Action Programme for the homeless did not have Luxembourgian citizenship. Of these, 47% of the beneficiaries were citizens of an EU country and around 44% were third-country citizens.	1.9	2023
Netherlands	42% of people experiencing homelessness were born outside the Netherlands. Among these, 34% were born outside of Europe and 8% were born in another European country.	1.6	2023
Norway	33% of people experiencing homelessness were born outside Norway. Of these, 4% were born in an EU country.	3	2020
Portugal	(1) Among people living rough (ETHOS 1), less than 10% do not possess the Portuguese citizenship in most regions (except in Algarve and Lisbon’s metropolitan area, where 17% and 26% of people living rough do not possess Portuguese citizenship, respectively). (2) Among people living in temporary accommodation, in all regions, 32% do not possess the Portuguese citizenship with the exception of Alentejo, where 55% do not possess Portuguese citizenship.	(1) 0.9 (average) (2) 3.0 (average)	2022
Spain	50% of individuals using accommodation assistance centres and restoration centres do not possess Spanish citizenship.	4.4	2022
Sweden	43% of people experiencing homelessness were born outside Sweden.	5.1	2017
United Kingdom (England)	27% of people experiencing homelessness did not have UK citizenship. Out of these, 9% were EU nationals.	2.5	2023

Note: The estimated share of migrants among the homeless population relative to their population share builds on the same definition of “migrants” as that used in the national homelessness statistics in the second column. See the source below for information on the share of migrants as percentage of total population used to calculate the share of migrants among the homeless population relative to their population share.

Source: OECD (2024[15]), “Challenges to measuring homelessness among migrants in OECD and EU countries”, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/challenges-to-measuring-homelessness-among-migrants-in-oecd-and-eu-countries_b9855842-en.html.

Statlink

Many OECD countries are implementing measures to support foreign-born communities, including introducing action plans and legal amendments to improve housing conditions and access for immigrants. At the EU level, this is a strategic priority, with access to adequate and affordable housing for migrants being one of the actions in the European Commission’s 2021‑27 action plan on integration and inclusion.

In the Netherlands, the Good Landlordship Act, effective from 1 July 2023, sets rules for renting homes to migrants, including the mandatory separation of employment and rental contracts for migrant workers. Municipalities enforce these standards, and a policy plan has been developed to better support homeless EU citizens. Additionally, the National Action Plan for Student Accommodation aims to create 60 000 new student housing units by 2030. This plan encourages universities to arrange accommodations for first-year international students and demands greater transparency in rents charged by student accommodation providers. International students, who often pay more per room than Dutch students and face exclusion from student houses, are particularly vulnerable in the Dutch housing market.

In Norway, the government appointed the Commission on the Tenants Act in June 2023. This commission will assess current laws and suggest improvements to enhance tenant rights, secure fundamental security of tenure, and adapt the law to current circumstances. A key focus will be reducing discrimination in the housing market.

In some countries, immigrants are eligible for rent subsidies and support provided for all legal residents, such as in Denmark and Finland. Portugal also offers a range of national programmes aimed at ensuring access to decent housing for all legal residents, including immigrants. These programmes include the Affordable Rental Programme, Chave na Mão (Turnkey), and Reabilitar Para Arrendar (Rehabilitate to Rent).

Yet this is not always the case and a popular form of support in various OECD countries is providing immigrants targeted financial support. For instance, rental subsidies are a common measure. Colombia’s Acogida programme, funded by the U.S. Department of State, offers a rent subsidy to Venezuelan migrants and vulnerable Colombians, facilitating access to safe housing. In the United States, different states and municipalities have programmes to help eligible newcomers. During the COVID‑19 pandemic, Connecticut allocated USD 28 million in rental assistance programmes for immigrants who could not access other forms of federal and state rental relief. In Michigan, the Newcomer Rental Subsidy programme provides eligible refugee and newcomer households with up to USD 500 per month for 12 months, based on immigration status and household income. The Asylum Seekers Emergency Rental Assistance Program (ASERAP) provides rental assistance grants of up to USD 15 000 or 6 months of rental assistance, whichever is reached first, to asylum seekers in Illinois.

In rarer instances, financial support is provided to immigrants for buying homes. The Norwegian State Housing Bank offers loans and grants to individuals, municipalities and housing developers, with substantial increases in loan schemes in 2022 and 2023. A significant portion of this funding goes to municipal start-up loans, which help immigrants and others with long-term mortgage access issues to buy or adapt their homes. The loan scheme also supports municipalities in providing rental housing for disadvantaged people, including immigrants. In Poland, a temporary measure in July 2023 allowed foreigners living and paying taxes in the country to access the “2% Safe Mortgage” programme, which offers a fixed interest rate of 2% over 10 years for first-time home buyers, on the same terms as Polish nationals. This state‑subsidised loan was available to individuals up to the age of 45 who did not own property in Poland. However, this programme was halted in January 2024.

Alongside financial support, there are schemes available to help immigrants overcome other barriers in the rental market, such as discrimination and lack of documentation. For example, the Australian Red Cross has been contracted by the Department of Home Affairs to deliver a programme that helps secure long-term accommodation for refugees in Western Australia, New South Wales, and the Australian Capital Territory. Refugees often struggle to find homes in the private rental market due to their initial income being provided by social benefits and their lack of rental history in Australia. The Red Cross acts as a mediator, preparing clients to be reliable and self-sufficient tenants.

Central governments are working with diverse stakeholders to improve reception capacities following unprecedented humanitarian arrivals

Asylum seekers and humanitarian migrants are generally afforded different reception conditions compared to other immigrants, including the provision of housing. These conditions vary by country and are influenced by factors such as the number of arrivals, the host country’s socio‑economic situation, national and regional demographic and security issues, the complexity of the asylum system and the manner of the immigrants’ arrival. Meeting such obligations has become increasingly difficult due to the large numbers of asylum seekers arriving in the OECD, which have reached new unprecedented levels for two consecutive years.

In Europe, Russia’s large‑scale invasion against Ukraine has caused the largest displacement crisis since the Second World War, straining existing reception capacities (OECD, 2022[16]). Under the EU Temporary Protection Directive, beneficiaries of temporary protection in EU member states are entitled to suitable accommodation or housing, or means to obtain it. Initially, many fleeing Ukraine were housed by private hosts and households and in temporary shelters, but the transition to longer-term housing has been a major issue in many countries, including Belgium, Ireland and the Netherlands. Ireland, for instance, had to resort to using tented accommodation in 2023. The inflows from Ukraine, combined with a general surge in international protection applications, have put immense pressure on state accommodation services in Ireland, with no possibility of further upscaling reception capacity. As of 19 November 2023, 25 742 people were in accommodation provided by the International Protection Accommodation Service (IPAS), up from 7 244 in December 2021. In the Netherlands, the government estimated a shortage of 38 000 reception places for asylum seekers in 2023.

Similar challenges can also be seen in the Americas. One in five forcibly displaced people globally resides in the Americas. The Venezuelan situation remains the most prominent, with 6.5 million out of 7.7 million Venezuelan refugees and migrants moving to neighbouring countries, particularly Colombia (2.9 million), where 60% of displaced persons live in overcrowded conditions. (OECD/UNHCR/IDB, 2024[17]). The unprecedented situation at the US-Mexico border has exacerbated the reception and housing crisis also in North America. The record number of arrivals has overwhelmed shelter systems in several major urban centres in the United States, including Chicago, Los Angeles and New York City, forcing many asylum seekers to sleep on the streets. The lack of reception capacities are particularly concerning given the notable rise in the number of migrant families with children among humanitarian arrivals, who are especially vulnerable.

Challenging conditions across the OECD have prompted host countries to explore alternative approaches for managing reception, including expanding the range of partners involved in service provision. Central governments have also reshaped their relationships with traditional partners, such as municipalities and local authorities, to enhance housing provision. Notably, central governments are seeking better regional and local dispersal of humanitarian migrants and asylum seekers throughout their territories. They are working with municipalities that receive fewer migrants to alleviate housing pressures in countries such as Finland, France, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland. In Sweden, for example, legal amendments were introduced to distribute Ukrainian refugees more evenly across the country, promoting burden-sharing and preventing segregation. Under this law, municipalities must provide housing for displaced persons, while the Swedish Migration Agency allocates them based on local labour market conditions, population size, and the number of newly arrived immigrants, unaccompanied minors, and asylum seekers already residing in the municipality.

More importantly, there is a growing reliance on external service providers for alternative forms of housing, including in countries like Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, Poland, Spain and the United States. In Italy, for instance, there is a significant trend towards privatisation in residential reception facilities. Between 2012 and 2021, the number of residential reception facilities in Italy increased by 67.5%, from 1 497 to 2 506 units. Private facilities dominate, with 2035 units providing 33 246 beds, which account for 76% of the total beds available in the Italian reception system.

Alongside commercial providers, the reliance on private households and individuals to increase reception capacities according to changes in need is increasingly common, including in Australia, Finland, Greece, the Netherlands, Spain and the United Kingdom. The Private Rented Sector Leasing Scheme Wales in the United Kingdom, for example, allows homeowners to rent out their properties to the local authorities, so they can house destitute locals and migrants – adding to the stock of decentralised housing. In the Netherlands, due to limited reception capacity, refugees can reside for three months with family, friends, or a Dutch host family while awaiting permanent housing in a municipality. An external evaluation also highlighted that besides reducing the pressures on housing, it had positive effects on learning the Dutch language and building a social network.

The reliance on housing in private settings and with host families was particularly notable during the early response to the Ukrainian displacement crisis. In 2022, Finland and Latvia estimated that around two‑thirds of displaced persons were in temporary private accommodation, while in Belgium and Italy, this figure reached as high as 85‑90% (OECD, 2022[16]). Given the large numbers, the European Commission (EC) launched the Safe Homes initiative in 2022 to provide targeted guidance to Member States, regional and local authorities, and civil society in organising private housing initiatives for those fleeing Ukraine in need of protection.

Acknowledging the financial burden of hosting arrangements, some governments have provided financial support to private hosts, including France, Poland, Czechia, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia and the United Kingdom. Yet this support was not always without challenges. In Romania, the government observed that reimbursing expenses for hosting displaced persons became an attractive source of income for many property owners. This increased demand for housing in desirable areas, leading to reduced availability and higher rent costs in the open market. Consequently, Romanian citizens seeking similar housing faced significant challenges.

The involvement of various stakeholders helps address reception issues in the short term, but there is a pressing need for broader long-term housing solutions for both migrants and the general population. Increasing migrant inflows undeniably increase the pressure on social infrastructure assets in host countries, including state and community housing, schools, universities, hospitals, and medical facilities. If these pressures are not effectively managed, they could influence public opinion and exacerbate tensions within OECD countries. Vulnerable native populations often perceive themselves as being in direct competition with new arrivals, and immigrants are frequently blamed for resource shortages. This is particularly challenging in developed democratic countries, which have legal obligations to provide for refugees but may not always extend the same level of support to their own vulnerable populations.

Housing pressures are likely to shape public debates on immigration in the coming years. In Canada, for instance, increases in immigration are seen as one factor contributing to the pressure on accessible and affordable housing, particularly in larger centres where many newcomers settle. In 2024, a two‑year temporary cap was introduced on the number of new study permits granted to foreign students, aimed specifically at easing pressure on housing.

Yet immigrants often play a crucial role in the construction industry, essential for building new homes. Between 2016 and 2018, migrants constituted 36% of all construction workers in the Netherlands, 31% in Canada, Sweden and Israel, 28% in the United Kingdom, and 26.5% in the United States (OECD, 2020[18]). During the same period, construction was the main sector of employment for migrants in Slovenia and the second most common sector in Finland, France, Greece and Italy. More generally, migrants are not the main cause of housing challenges across the OECD and, instead, can be part of the solution. However, proactive efforts by policy makers are essential to develop long-term solutions for housing and broader social infrastructure challenges in the OECD, thereby preventing public frustration and misplaced blame on immigrant communities.

References

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