This chapter examines the wider cultural context of mathematics across different educational systems. Making use of self-reported data it discusses the concept of cultural views towards mathematics and looks at students’ attitudes towards the subject, such as enjoyment, anxiety and self-efficacy. The chapter makes connections between students’ views towards maths, and participation and performance in the subject.
Mathematics for Life and Work
A Comparative Perspective on Mathematics to Inform Upper Secondary Reform in England
Abstract
Few countries demonstrate an overwhelming ‘culture of maths’
15-year-olds in some high-performing systems in mathematics (such as Austria, Korea and Japan) report lower enjoyment of mathematics (below or at the OECD average) suggesting that even in systems with very high mathematics performance there is not a dominant “culture of mathematics”.
At 15, students in England have similar or more positive attitudes towards mathematics than their peers across the OECD on average
15-year-olds students in England report comparable enjoyment and more positive self‑beliefs of mathematics, with high levels of self-efficacy and low levels of mathematics anxiety, than their peers across OECD systems on average.
Promoting positive views and attitudes towards mathematics can support more equitable distributions of maths skills across society
Gender and socio-economic differences in maths performance are reflected in differences in attitudes towards the subject across students from different backgrounds. Gender gaps in England are particularly pronounced. More positive views towards the subject could help reduce participation and performance gaps, resulting in a more equitable distribution of mathematics skills across society.
Readers may find it useful to consult the Readers’ Guide of the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2022 Volume I about the PISA the data used1.
1. The Readers’ Guide or PISA 2022 Volume I can be found on the following link: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/4cd15712-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/4cd15712-en#
Students’ views towards mathematics are shaped by what they hear and observe in society and within their communities, and the messages that are transmitted to them at school and by their parents or guardians. Cultural perceptions of mathematics are also embedded in curricula design and the structure of upper secondary education. While cultural views and perceptions are difficult to capture, they are important to consider for policy making since students’ learning is influenced by their views of, and relationship with, a subject (OECD, 2013[1]).
Is there a prevalent view in England that it is ok not to be good at mathematics?
The topic of cultural acceptance of underachievement in mathematics in the United Kingdom has been widely discussed in the literature. A major study suggested that in comparison to other cultures, parents in the United Kingdom, broadly, attach less importance to their children’s achievements in mathematics, with statements like, “Don’t worry dear, I could never understand maths at school either”, being more commonplace than in some other cultures (Cockcroft, 1982, p. 62[2]). Research further suggests that there is a prevailing view that it is more acceptable in English-speaking countries to accept poor performance in mathematics (Sam and Ernest, 2000[3]; Charles et al., 2014[4]).
The discussions that the OECD team had with stakeholders across the focus countries in other English-speaking countries like British Columbia (Canada), Ireland and New Zealand reflected similar statements, with parents sometimes saying to teachers that it was okay if their child struggled and did not enjoy mathematics because this had been their experience too. Other studies establish a clear contrast in levels of expectations between Chinese parents, and parents in Canada and the United States and their children’s performance and engagement with maths (Cai, 2003[5]; Cao, Bishop and Forgasz, 2007[6]).
One of the key questions for England, in seeking to encourage greater up-take and performance in mathematics until 18, was how far specific policies and teaching around mathematics might be effective in England, given the possibility that different cultural perceptions might also shape student take-up and performance in the subject. This question is addressed in the exploration of views towards mathematics in this chapter, and the perceived importance of mathematics in Chapter 8.
Understanding cultural views in the context of mathematics
Cultural views towards mathematics
Culture is a concept that encompasses the social behaviour, institutions and norms in societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups. Culture often originates from, or is attributed to, a specific region or location (Tylor, 1871[7]).
The perspective of cultural views on mathematics overlaps with the concept of attitudes towards mathematics. A specific attitude towards mathematics can be viewed as “a liking or disliking of mathematics, a tendency to engage in or avoid mathematical activities, a belief that one is good or bad at mathematics, and a belief that mathematics is useful or ‘useless’” (Neale, 1969, p. 632[8]). Attitudes towards mathematics, like other attitudes, are shaped by environments across households and society (Mohamed and Waheed, 2011[9]; Armstrong and Price, 1982[10]). Like for other topics, students’ attitudes towards mathematics are linked to the perceptions of their parents or guardians, which in turn have continuously been fed by inter-generational transmission.
While attitudes across society are difficult to capture and are not monolithic, studies have suggested that there is a prevailing perception in many western countries that associates mathematics with being difficult, cold, and abstract (Ernest, 2018[11]). While much of the comparative literature establishes a contrast between the so-called global “West” and the Confucianist “East” in terms of views towards mathematics, in most cases data and evidence are restricted to a few countries. Most studies focused on perceptions of mathematics in the “West” use data from English-speaking western countries, such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. While there are similarities in these countries’ education systems and their cultures built on historical ties, their histories and cultures tend to be quite distinct in many respects to most continental European systems. The ‘West’ is not a homogeneous group of countries, which in fact have very distinct educational systems, outcomes and diverse cultures.
The impact of culture on policy making is complex and intertwined. Culture can shape how individuals respond to policies, and policymakers must consider its influence. However, policies themselves also have a significant impact on behaviour. In education for example, polices like funding and teacher preparation interact with the broader cultural context to shape implementation and results (Wursten and Jacobs, 2013[12]).
It is extremely challenging to pinpoint what “cultural views” towards mathematics are, and even more challenging to identify how they are formed, evolve and might influence learning. Not only is the conceptual dimension of what a “cultural view” means hazy, but it is equally demanding to disentangle cultural views from other factors that might overlap with culture such as public policies and policies regarding access to tertiary education. If, for example, mathematics is not compulsory in upper secondary education, this may influence perceptions of its importance that might look like “culture”.
Despite these challenges, some research has suggested that some societies hold a prevailing view of mathematics as difficult, cold, abstract, as well as largely masculine (Ernest, 2018[11]). Many studies explore the gender-dimension of mathematics, revealing that girls might lack confidence and view the subject as a male domain (Meelissen and Luyten, 2008[13]; Odell and Schumacher, 1998[14]; Hyde, Fennema and Lamon, 1990[15]). Observing the contrasting example of Barbie’s “Math class is tough” in the United States with the media scandal created by pi being reported as approximately 3 instead of 3.14 in school textbooks in Japan provides insights on how media and toy manufacturers perceive popular culture across the different countries (Box 7.1. discusses these examples). In the end, Barbie’s phrase about maths being difficult was withdrawn, reflecting national complaints. Yet the fact that toy manufacturers thought that this phase was acceptable might be seen to reflect some dimensions of popular views towards mathematics in the United States and other English-speaking countries where the toy was commercialised.
“Math class is tough”: How Barbie dolls fed gender stereotypes about mathematics in the United States
In 1992, Mattel introduced the Teen Talk Barbie, a teenager version of the doll with an incorporated voice box to reproduce one of four selected phrases. One of the phrases was “Math class is tough”.
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, among other educators in the United States raised concerns about this phrase, as it was seen to hinder efforts to encourage girls to study mathematics and science. Other phrases, related to shopping further fed gender stereotypes about girls. The doll was highlighted in a report published by the American Association of University Women about the relatively poor education in mathematics and science received by girls.
Mattel apologised to the American Association of University Women, withdrew the math class phrase from future dolls, and offered to exchange dolls that had already been bought with the phrase.
“Pi is 3” – Polemic around the “relaxed education” model in Japan.
In 1998, Japan revised national curriculum guidelines as part of the Yutori policy. One aspect of this policy, also called “relaxed education policy” was that “the content of arithmetic learning in multiplication, division, and decimals was reduced, while calculators were allowed to be used from the arithmetic learning stage”. The Yutori policy caused widespread criticism across the country as society felt it would lead to a drop in pupils’ academic achievement.
One of the most famous episodes of this polemic was the “Pi is 3” incident. In 1999, a major private tutoring company Japan launched a campaign against the Yutori policy. The tutoring company stated that according to the new guidelines "The formula for finding the area of a circle: radius x radius x 3!", and that students would be requested to "Calculate the quadrature of a circle with pi as approximately 3 instead of 3.14."
The case was covered by the media for months and resulted changes to the curriculum. The polemic had a large impact on the public, being represented in a novel as “the tragedy of 0.14", on comedy programmes, as well as in a song lyric "3.1415 pi is approximately 3.”
Source: The New York Times (1992[16]), Company News: Mattel Says It Erred; Teen Talk Barbie Turns Silent on Math, https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/21/business/company-news-mattel-says-it-erred-teen-talk-barbie-turns-silent-on-math.htm.l; Wikipedia (2024[17]), Pi is 3.
Identifying the main categories of “cultural views”
When reviewing literature on students’ attitudes towards mathematics, several factors play a vital role. They can be categorised into three groups:
Student-related factors
Students’ feelings and perceptions of mathematics and their relationship with it such as self-efficacy, anxiety and motivation (Tahar et al., 2010[18]). Experiences of mathematics also influence students’ views towards the subject (Bobis and Cusworth, 1994[19]).
School-related factors related to teaching and the classroom
Teachers’ attitudes and beliefs towards the subject (Ford, 1994[20]; Karp, 1991[21]; Cater, 1997[22]), teaching methods and classroom management, including peers’ views on mathematics (Yılmaz, Altun and Olkun, 2010[23]), and private tuition (Köğce et al., 2009[24]). It is not just the views of mathematics teachers that might influence student perceptions of the subject. The OECD team’s discussions with the focus countries for this report also revealed that subject teachers and primary teachers sometimes express views that mathematics is hard and difficult. These views might influence their teaching and learning activities, shaping their perceptions of their role for supporting students’ numeracy competencies, and also the views of the students they teach.
Home/society-related factors:
Parents’ educational background and occupation (Köğce et al., 2009[24]), as well as their expectations (Tobias, 1993[25])
The challenges of data for understanding cultural views
This chapter uses self-reported perception data, and international and national data about mathematics outcomes to try to answer a series of questions about the views of students and broader society towards mathematics, such as:
How far do views towards mathematics vary across countries?
How far do individual countries or countries across the same region or with shared historical or cultural ties demonstrate similar views towards mathematics?
What is the influence of factors that might shape cultural views of mathematics, such as the demand for mathematics-related skills in the national economy and in post-secondary education? (Chapter 8)
Using self-reported data to provide a window on cultural views of mathematics
This chapter attempts to capture cultural views using data that provide windows on the perceptions, views, and attitudes towards mathematics in countries. The chapter is based on analysis of data from the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), conducted by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA).
As well as collecting performance data, both the PISA and TIMSS assessments collect self-reported data from students, their parents and teachers about views and perceptions of mathematics. Table 7.1 sets out the self-reported data that this chapter uses from TIMSS and PISA. This includes data on:
Enjoyment of mathematics, as it broadly reflects the positive or negative character of students’ experiences with the subject. By using data on enjoyment across TIMSS and PISA, the report identifies patterns in how enjoyment evolves as students age and move through school.
Mathematics self-efficacy i.e., the extent to which students believe in their own ability to handle mathematical tasks effectively and overcome difficulties, and mathematics anxiety i.e., thoughts and feelings about self in relation to mathematics, such as feelings of helplessness and stress when dealing with mathematics.
Source: IEA (2019[26]), TIMSS 2019 International Database, https://timss2019.org/international-database/ (accessed on 8 March 2024); OECD (2023[27]), PISA 2022 Online Education Database, https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/pisa-2022-database.html (accessed on 13 February 2024).
Self-perception data provides important insights but has limitations
By relying on self-reported data and the patterns observed, the interpretations in this chapter necessarily reflect all the limitations embedded in self-perception data. Different countries, societies, and individuals have diverse interpretations of what the same concept, such as stress or anxiety, means and they might measure it in different ways. For instance, in countries where schools and civil society frequently discuss mental health and wellbeing, students’ awareness and sensitivity towards these concepts might lead to higher self-reported rates of stress than in countries where there is less awareness about mental health. Varying interpretations even occur for the same individual across time, even daily, and are affected by fluctuating external factors (OECD, 2013[28]).
By looking at students’ self-reported enjoyment, self-efficacy and anxiety, this section provides insights on patterns in perceptions and behaviours towards the discipline.
Enjoyment of mathematics
The enjoyment learners report towards mathematics might directly inform how students view the subject. High levels of enjoyment reflect a positive experience with the learning process, which in turn might promote students’ disposition to employ more effort and feel optimistic about overcoming challenges (OECD, 2013[1]). This section looks at students’ self-reported data on whether mathematics is one of their favourite subjects (PISA 2022), enjoyment of mathematics (PISA 2012) and enjoyment of mathematics in Grades 4 and 8 (TIMSS 2019).
In 2022, around two in five 15-year-old students across OECD countries considered mathematics to be one of their favourite subjects
In 2022, 39% of students said that mathematics was one of their favourite subjects (Figure 7.1). The results from 2022 are similar to 2012, (where the phrasing of the question was slightly different, focused on the enjoyment of mathematics) (OECD, 2023[27]; OECD, 2013[29]). In both 2012 and 2022, Singapore stood out with students’ views towards mathematics being overwhelmingly positive. In 2022, Singapore was the only country where more than half (65%) of students viewed mathematics as their favourite subject.
Students in the United Kingdom report enjoying mathematics at levels similar to the average across OECD countries
In 2022, 43% of students in the United Kingdom reported enjoyment of mathematics, slightly above the OECD average (39%). A minority of students in the United Kingdom reported a strong dislike of the subject – 21% compared to 29% across the OECD on average (OECD, 2023[27]). Students reported similar levels of enjoyment in 2012. These positive views contrast with of those reported in some literature and popular culture about mathematics in the United Kingdom, or more widely across English-speaking countries, being liked less than in other countries and regions of the world.
OECD countries and Singapore
Source: OECD (2023[27]), PISA 2022 Online Education Database, https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/pisa-2022-database.html (accessed on 13 February 2024).
Students in high-performing systems do not necessarily enjoy mathematics
In Korea and Japan, despite both countries’ high performance in mathematics, students reported some of the lowest enjoyment of mathematics in 2012 (both 31%). In 2022, the share of students reporting that mathematics was one of their favourite subjects was around the OECD average in Korea and just slightly above the OECD average in Japan (Figure 7.1) (OECD, 2023[27]).
In Austria - where students score above the OECD average, and where young adults score among the highest of all participating countries in the OECD’s Survey of Adult Skills, PIAAC (see Chapter 3) - students report low enjoyment of mathematics. In 2012, Austria stood out as the OECD country where 15-year-old students had the most negative attitudes towards mathematics (with just 25% reporting that they enjoy the subject). In 2022, the share of 15-year-olds considering mathematics to be one of their favourite subjects was amongst the lowest across all OECD countries (32%) (OECD, 2023[27]). Even in high performing systems, students do not have a dominantly positive view or perception of mathematics1.
Students’ enjoyment of mathematics declines as they get older
At Grade 4, self-reported enjoyment of mathematics is high in most countries. In 2019, 82% of students agreed or strongly agreed that they like mathematics. England stands out with 83% of children in Grade 4 reporting that they enjoy mathematics, similar to Singapore (84%) (IEA, 2019[26]).
In contrast, the share of students reporting that they enjoy mathematics declines to 67% in Grade 8 (IEA, 2019[26]). Literature also suggests that children’s attitudes towards mathematics tend to become more negative as they move from primary to secondary school (McLeod, 1994[30]). Students’ enjoyment of science falls over the same period, although in most systems to a lesser extent than maths. As students’ progress in school and pressure from families and society increases, this might contribute to higher stress, anxiety, and lower confidence and enjoyment of schoolwork. Pedagogy in many countries also likely changes; moving from more play-based mathematics to focusing on formulae and algebra which might be taught in more traditional and largely individual ways (Grootenboer et al., 2016[31]).
While the pattern of declining enjoyment is the same for every country that participates in the survey for both grades, the decline in students’ enjoyment of mathematics is smaller in Singapore and New Zealand, and in Ireland and England to a lesser extent (Figure 7.2. Change in students’ enjoyment of mathematics and science between Grades 4 and 8). The smaller decline in Singapore likely reflects the strong enjoyment of mathematics and perceptions of its value among 15-year-olds. Broadly, it seems that the approach to teaching and learning mathematics in Singapore is enjoyable for students and there is strong value placed on the subject. Among the other countries where the decline over time is smaller, it is possible that pedagogical approaches in these countries also emphasis greater student engagement and investigative approaches to mathematics. In contrast, Korea and Japan register some of the bigger declines in the share of students who enjoy both mathematics and science between Grades 4 and 8 (Figure 7.2).
OECD countries and Singapore (countries with comparable data)
Source: IEA (2019[26]), TIMSS 2019 International Database, https://timss2019.org/international-database/ (accessed on 8 March 2024)
There is relative consistency across students’ reported enjoyment of mathematics in PISA and TIMSS
While data across PISA and TIMSS are not directly comparable and participating countries are not the same, there are common patterns in reported enjoyment of mathematics across countries in the two surveys. Notably, Singapore has consistently high shares of enjoyment across all ages. Similarly, albeit at lower levels overall, in Denmark 83% of children in Grade 4 report enjoying mathematics (slightly above the TIMSS international average), and very high shares of 15-year-olds in Denmark also report mathematics as one of their favourite subjects (45% in 2012). In contrast, Korea, and Japan are among the countries with the lowest reported enjoyment in both surveys.
However in some countries, enjoyment of mathematics changes significantly across age cohorts. Children in Grades 4 in England and New Zealand report some of the highest shares of enjoyment of mathematics, yet this falls comparative to other systems by 15 in PISA. A similar pattern is observed in Austria.
How does enjoyment of mathematics vary between different groups of students?
Students from higher socio-economic backgrounds and immigrant students are more likely to consider mathematics to be one of their favourite subjects
On average across the OECD, students from advantaged backgrounds are 13 percentage points more likely to report mathematics as one of their favourite subjects than their peers from disadvantaged backgrounds 2 (OECD, 2023[27]). In some countries with a strong tradition of Vocational Education and Training (VET) in upper secondary education, such as Austria, the Netherlands and Switzerland, this gap is considerably smaller than the OECD average. One possible explanation is that these education systems and their wider economies have historically been built on strong technical education which necessarily places significant emphasis on mathematical content for all students. Since students enrolled in VET programmes are more frequently from lower socio-economic backgrounds on average across the OECD (OECD, 2023[27]), this pattern of participation helps to reduce disparities in attitudes towards mathematics in these systems.
Boys report higher enjoyment of mathematics than girls
Overall, across the OECD, 15-year-old boys report higher levels of enjoyment of mathematics than girls (OECD, 2013[29]; OECD, 2023[27]). The United Kingdom has the fifth largest gender gap in enjoyment of maths across the OECD, reflecting the large gender gap also seen in performance (see Chapter 3). Countries with well-developed VET systems such as Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland also have some of the largest gender gaps, between 14 and 21 percentage points. This pattern might be influenced by gendered patterns of VET enrolment, with boys being more likely to be enrolled in VET. In Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland, the gender gap in VET enrolment is between 13 and 19 percentage points, greater than the OECD average (8 percentage points) (OECD/UIS/Eurostat, 2021[32]).
OECD countries and Singapore
Source: OECD (2023[27]), PISA 2022 Online Education Database, , https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/pisa-2022-database.html (accessed on 13 February 2024).
Table 7.2 provides an overview of students’ reported enjoyment of mathematics across different age groups and groups of students. Key points include:
Despite the reported cultural view that mathematics is not deemed to be essential or liked in the United Kingdom, many students report enjoying mathematics.
Singapore stands out as a country where many students, both boys and girls, report high enjoyment of mathematics. This might reflect general appreciation of its importance – students are more likely to report enjoying mathematics because it is deemed to be socially important. This might also reflect curricula and pedagogy which students find motivating and engaging.
High enjoyment of mathematics is not common in other high performing systems in east Asia. In Japan and Korea, students report lower enjoyment of mathematics than the OECD average (or at the OECD average) and enjoyment declines significantly as students move through the school system. Another system that performs well in mathematics and has high participation yet reports low levels of enjoyment is Austria.
Overall, these data tend to suggest that the broad grouping of countries into blocs, such as “West” and “East”, regarding cultural attitudes towards mathematics are not necessarily helpful. There is not a common dominant cultural view of mathematics across either the west or east, or certainly not one that permeates students’ self-reported enjoyment of the subject at 15. Data also suggest that countries with high participation and performance in mathematics do not necessarily have a predominant “culture of mathematics” where most or even many students report enjoying it.
Reported enjoyment of mathematics across different age groups, socio-economic backgrounds and gender.
Above OECD average
Below OECD average
Note: 1 TIMSS data refer to England, rather than the UK. 2 Refers to the OECD average. 3 Refers to the average of the 28 OECD countries and jurisdictions that participated in TIMSS for Grade 4. 4 Refers to the average of the 20 OECD countries and jurisdictions that participated in TIMSS for Grade 8. 5 This figure takes only into account the countries with comparable data, i.e., the ones who both participated in the survey for Grade 4 and Grade 8; Green indicates the country performs better than the OECD average; Red indicates the country performs lower than the OECD average.
Source: IEA (2019[26]), TIMSS 2019 International Database; OECD (2013[29]), https://timss2019.org/international-database/ (accessed on 8 March 2024); PISA 2012 Online Education Database, https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/pisa-2022-database.html (accessed on 13 February 2024).
The role of curricula and pedagogy for the enjoyment of mathematics
While societal views might interact with students’ enjoyment of mathematics, enjoyment is also influenced by other factors, notably curricula and pedagogy. The analysis of mathematics curricula (see Chapter 6) offers some insights into countries’ different approaches and expectations around mathematics. In Singapore, the different mathematics curricula put strong emphasis on mathematical problem solving and mathematical reasoning. Similarly in Denmark, students are expected to apply mathematics procedures to solve real life problems.
Mathematical reasoning and the prominence of problem solving in the national curriculum and examination questions implies that teaching must focus on developing students’ “mathematics attack” skills i.e., developing fluency with a wide range of different mathematics tools across varied contexts. Such approaches may be more engaging for students than learning that focuses on repetition of standard problems. The greater prominence of mathematical reasoning and problem solving in mathematics curricula in Denmark and Singapore might influence higher enjoyment levels.
Students’ self-beliefs towards learning mathematics
Individuals’ self-beliefs can influence their motivation, resilience, and shape how they make decisions about their education and career pathways (Bandura, 1997[33]; Wigfield and Eccles, 2000[34]). This section looks at students’ self-reported beliefs towards mathematics from PISA 2012 and PISA 2022.
Mathematics self-efficacy and anxiety tend to be related
Self-efficacy is one’s belief or perception about one’s capability to perform at a certain level on a task (OECD, 2013[1]). Across the OECD on average, there is a negative relationship between the levels of mathematics self-efficacy and anxiety towards mathematics (Figure 7.4). In 2022 in the United Kingdom, 15-year-olds expressed more positive attitudes towards mathematics, with higher self-efficacy and lower anxiety than across the OECD on average (OECD, 2023[27]). The positive beliefs that 15-year-olds express in their ability to solve mathematics challenges in the United Kingdom contrasts with the reported social perceptions of mathematics as being hard and cold (Ernest, 2018[11]).
Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland also stand out as countries where students combine high levels of self-efficacy and low anxiety. This might reflect the historic strengths of these systems in technical education where mathematics is well and systematically integrated. Teaching and learning of mathematics in these systems appears to support students to feel confident in their abilities to tackle mathematics questions and problems. While it is not universally the case, many systems with high self-efficacy and low anxiety are also those that perform among the highest of OECD countries in PISA.
OECD countries and Singapore
Source: OECD (2023[27]), PISA 2022 Online Education Database, , https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/pisa-2022-database.html (accessed on 13 February 2024).
In 2022, students in Korea, Japan and Singapore reported lower levels of anxiety than previously
In 2022, reported anxiety among students in Korea, Japan and Singapore fell significantly from 2012 levels. In contrast, most countries across the OECD saw a sharp rise in anxiety towards mathematics, most likely related to the challenges of navigating education while coping with the disruptions related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Overall, on average the index of mathematics anxiety in the OECD went from 0 in 2012 to 0.17 in 2022 (OECD, 2023[35]).
The most recent results might reflect the temporary effects of COVID rather than a long-term trend. In 2012, students in Korea and Japan reported some of the highest levels of anxiety and lowest self-efficacy towards mathematics. Students in Singapore also reported high levels of anxiety towards mathematics in 2012 (OECD, 2013[29]). Literature exploring negative student self-beliefs and high performance in some east Asian countries has emphasised the influence of collectivist culture, where family and community take a more active role in students’ education, assuming responsibility and being more critical of academic success, largely measured by school achievement. As a result, higher pressure over results might encourage higher levels of anxiety and fear, and lower levels of confidence (Chiu and Klassen, 2010[36]).
Data from PISA also suggest that high performing students in general might have greater questions around their self-efficacy. Data on reading from 2018 show lower levels of self-efficacy among several high performing systems in reading such as Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong (China), Japan, Macao (China), the United Kingdom, and Singapore (OECD, 2019[37]). Higher performing students may set ambitious expectations for themselves to continually perform at high levels. They may also be more aware of nuances and techniques required to perform at these levels, creating more demanding perceptions of what self-efficacy means.
Self-beliefs towards mathematics across different groups of students
Girls are more likely to report low levels of self-efficacy and higher anxiety
Across all OECD countries 15-year-old boys register higher levels of self-efficacy in mathematics than their female peers (Figure 7.5). The gender gap is considerably larger than the OECD average in several English-speaking countries – Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. This also reflects the lower enjoyment of mathematics and performance of girls in these countries (Figure 7.3. Gender gap in the share of 15-years-old students who ). In these English-speaking systems, where some research and elements of popular culture seem to demonstrate that being good at mathematics is not viewed as essential (Box 7.1. ), there might be a tendency for it to be perceived as a male-dominated discipline, in which it is culturally acceptable for girls not to enjoy mathematics. In contrast, gender-related differences in self-efficacy are small in Singapore, suggesting that the system is effective in setting high expectations – and experiences – for both boys and girls.
OECD countries and Singapore
Source: OECD (2023[27]), PISA 2022 Online Education Database, , https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/pisa-2022-database.html (accessed on 13 February 2024).
Socio-economically disadvantaged students are more likely to report low levels of self-efficacy and higher levels of anxiety
In all OECD countries, advantaged students have higher levels of mathematics self-efficacy than disadvantaged students (on average, a difference of 0.69 points in the mathematics self-efficacy index). Similarly, across all OECD countries, disadvantaged students report higher levels of mathematics anxiety (on average, a difference of 0.29 points in the mathematics anxiety index). While these differences partly reflect differences in mathematics performance related to socio-economic status, they remain large and statistically significant even when comparing students who perform similarly in mathematics (OECD, 2013[1]).
Table 7.3 provides an overview of students’ self-beliefs (self-efficacy and anxiety) towards mathematics, as well as the evolution of these self-beliefs and gender gaps between 2012 and 2022. Key points include:
Students in the United Kingdom are relatively positive in their ability to solve mathematics problems and questions, with low mathematics-related anxiety.
Students in countries with strong upper secondary VET systems tend to feel well equipped to solve mathematics challenges.
Students’ self-efficacy fell and anxiety in mathematics increased sharply on average between 2012 and 2022, most likely related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Exceptions to this trend were Japan, Korea, and Singapore.
Students’ beliefs do not suggest that students in England have more negative views towards mathematics, certainly not at 15, than in other systems.
While there are some common trends across countries (e.g., low self-efficacy and high anxiety towards mathematics in Japan and Korea), in general the data does not suggest that countries have a predominate “culture of mathematics” that is associated with largely positive views towards the subject (perhaps with the exception of Singapore). Data also suggests that system design (e.g., VET systems) and temporary shocks (e.g., COVID-19) can play an important role in students’ self-beliefs.
Reported enjoyment of mathematics across different age groups, socio-economic backgrounds, and gender.
Above OECD average
Below OECD average
Note: Green indicates the country performs better than the OECD average; Red indicates the country performs lower than the OECD average. The arrows indicate the variation between 2012 and 2022; The TIMSS average is calculated from the countries with comparable data only. The figures in green reflect when a country performed better than the OECD average, and in red when a country performed lower than the OECD average.
Source: OECD (2013[29]), PISA 2012 Online Education Database, https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/pisa-2012-database.html (accessed on 13 February 2024); OECD (2023[27]), PISA 2022 Online Education Database, https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/pisa-2022-database.html (accessed on 13 February 2024).
This section uses the analysis on student enjoyment and self-beliefs around mathematics to explore if there are relationships with participation and performance in the subject.
Do enjoyment and self-beliefs matter for performance in mathematics?
Across the OECD, individual’s enjoyment of mathematics matters for their performance
In PISA 2012, students’ enjoyment of mathematics was part of an index on intrinsic motivation to learn mathematics. The index measures the extent to which students may learn mathematics because they simply enjoy it and find it interesting 3 (OECD, 2013[29]). On average across OECD countries, a change of one unit in the index of intrinsic motivation to learn mathematics translates into a 19 score-point difference in mathematics performance (Figure 7.6) 4 (OECD, 2013[1]).
However, high performing countries do not necessary also report high levels enjoyment (i.e., there is not country-level association). Singapore stands out as a country where enjoyment of mathematics is the highest and performance is also high. Yet, this is not the case in all countries. Notably, Japan and Korea report low levels of enjoyment while being high performing systems, this is also the case to a lesser extent in Austria. In these systems, policies to support higher enjoyment might result in better mathematics performance.
OECD countries and Singapore
Source: OECD (2013[29]), PISA 2012 Online Education Database, https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/pisa-2012-database.html (accessed on 13 February 2024)
Students’ self-beliefs and their performance
Higher self-efficacy is associated with higher performance
Mathematics self-efficacy refers to students’ convictions that they can successfully perform given academic tasks at designated levels (Schunk, 1991[38]). It is argued that high levels of self-efficacy leads to stronger motivation and a positive attitude towards challenges (OECD, 2013[1]). Inversely, low levels of self-efficacy create anxiety, as students perceive challenges as threats to be avoided (OECD, 2013[1]). Students who have high levels of mathematics anxiety generally report feeling tense, apprehensive, and fearful of mathematics (Ma, 1999[39]; Tobias, 1993[25]). Students with mathematics anxiety also tend to underperform in tasks compared to students with no or low levels of mathematics anxiety (Hembree, 1990[40]; Ma, 1999[39]).
Across the OECD, there is a clear country-level association between mathematics self-efficacy and performance (Figure 7.7). Systems where students report higher mathematics self-efficacy tend to be higher performing. Having greater self-efficacy also matters for an individual’s performance. Data from PISA 2012 show that an increase of 1 unit in the index of mathematics self-efficacy is associated with a difference of 49 score points in mathematics 5 (OECD, 2013[29]).
Lower anxiety is associated with higher performance
Students who report higher levels of anxiety often worry that it will be difficult for them in mathematics classes. Such students often feel tense and nervous while dealing with mathematics problems, being fearful of the discipline (Zeidner and Matthews, 2011[41]). PISA 2022 reveals that across the OECD there is a negative country-level association between mathematics anxiety and performance (OECD, 2023[35]). At the student-level, this relationship between mathematics anxiety and performance is also strong. Data from PISA 2012 reported that on average in the OECD, a one unit increase of mathematics anxiety index was associated with a fall of 34 score points in mathematics performance 6 (OECD, 2013[1]).
In England, 15-years-old students report higher levels of mathematics self-efficacy than the OECD average, as well as lower levels of mathematics anxiety. These positive mathematics self-beliefs vis-à-vis the OECD average suggest that 15-year-old students in England have largely positive beliefs about their capability to solve mathematics problems, supporting the country’s performance overall in the subject.
OECD countries and Singapore
Source: OECD (2023[27]), PISA 2022 Online Education Database, https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/pisa-2022-database.html (accessed on 13 February 2024).
In systems with lower enjoyment of mathematics and more negative self-beliefs, performance might be constrained by attitudes towards mathematics
Enjoyment, self-efficacy and anxiety matter for mathematics performance. However, there are some countries that achieve high performance despite students reporting relatively negative attitudes towards the subject. Japan and Korea are among the OECD countries with the lowest levels of enjoyment and self-efficacy, and highest levels of anxiety. Literature reports that this apparent paradox is also present in some other east Asian countries, such as Taiwan (Morony et al., 2013[42]). Despite being high performers, the performance in these systems is negatively influenced by students’ low self-belief towards mathematics.
These countries might be affected by the stronger relationship between self-efficacy and anxiety with performance among the highest performing students (of which there are naturally more in high performing systems like Japan and Korea). Data from PISA 2012 show that even after accounting for gender and socio-economic differences, the association between mathematics anxiety and mathematics performance at the top of the performance distribution remains strong, much stronger than the association found among the lowest-achieving students (OECD, 2013[1]).
Policies that support high self-efficacy and low anxiety can help students achieve their full potential
Promoting policies to ensure that students feel well equipped and confident to tackle mathematics problems, as well as less anxious and fearful is important for performance in mathematics (OECD, 2013[1]). The latest PISA data from 2022 underline the importance of effective policies to promote self-efficacy and low anxiety, as between 2012 and 2022, self‑efficacy fell while anxiety increased dramatically (OECD, 2023[35]). These trends are likely attributed to the COVID-19 pandemic as well as school closures and social restriction policies.
Yet, while the pandemic was largely global in its reach, to some extent the impact was asymmetric. Students in Japan, Korea and Singapore reported a decline in anxiety, while students in Ireland and New Zealand reported some of the greatest increases in anxiety among the focus countries. One factor that might have influenced students’ anxiety is the duration of school closures. Japan and Korea had some of the shortest school closures related to COVID among all OECD countries. Based on students’ reports in PISA 2022, schools in Korea were closed for 1.9 months and in Japan for 1.7 months on average, well below the OECD average of 4.4 months. In contrast, students in New Zealand reported that their schools in were closed for 3.2 months on average and 6.2 months on average in Ireland (OECD, 2023[43]). For countries trying to strengthen reading and mathematics performance since COVID-19, measures around supporting students to feel confident and calm are important alongside approaches focused on knowledge acquisition.
Students’ attitudes towards mathematics might be behind the performance gender gap
PISA data consistently shows that boys outperform girls in mathematics in most OECD countries (OECD, 2023[27]). In PISA 2022, Austria, British Columbia (Canada), and England are among the education systems where the gap in mathematics performance is the largest (see Chapter 3). Part of this difference may be a result of considerable differences in self‑efficacy and levels of anxiety across genders. In OECD systems where the gender gap in mathematics performance was smaller than the OECD average, the self-efficacy gap was smaller than the OECD average in 11 systems, and the anxiety gap was smaller than the OECD average in 9 systems.
There also seems to be smaller gender gaps in performance in systems where general performance standards are high. This might reflect that countries that effectively communicate the importance of high achievement in mathematics for all students, underpinned by support and effective teaching, also support equitable outcomes. This is the case for Estonia and Korea where mathematics self-efficacy, anxiety and performance all have gender gaps smaller than the OECD average.
Do enjoyment and self-beliefs matter for participation in mathematics?
Students’ enjoyment and self-beliefs towards mathematics interact with requirements to take mathematics (Chapter 4), and other factors beyond school, such as tertiary entrance requirements, to influence upper secondary participation in mathematics (Chapter 8). Despite these other intervening factors, students’ beliefs of a subject are important, because in cases where mathematics is not compulsory, students’ views can influence participation. In cases where students are obliged to take mathematics, negative views towards mathematics – such as less enjoyment and more anxiety – are negatively associated with performance.
In England, high enjoyment and positive views towards mathematics might suggest latent demand at 16-18
Students in England report comparatively high enjoyment, self-efficacy and low anxiety towards mathematics (Table 7.2 and Table 7.3). Across OECD countries, students in England report greater enjoyment than in Ireland and the Netherlands, higher self-efficacy than Japan, Korea and Estonia and lower anxiety than Canada, Japan, or Singapore (OECD, 2013[29]; OECD, 2023[27]). Despite the positive views that young people have towards mathematics at 15, participation in mathematics post-16 in England is much lower than in many countries where students have more negative views towards the subject at 15. In 2021, only 14.6% of 16-18-year-old upper secondary students were doing A level mathematics in England (see Chapter 5 for data on participation in maths in upper secondary education across countries) (Department for Education, 2023[44]).
One of the factors affecting participation in mathematics at 16-18 in England is likely the limited range of options and levels from an internationally comparative perspective (see Chapter 5). The main option for 16-year-olds to continue studying the subject is the mathematics A level7. Yet, mathematics A level is perceived to be “notoriously difficult” within England (QCA, 2007[45]). A view which is confirmed by the international mathematics review in this report, which found it had the greater breadth of all the reviewed upper secondary mathematics programmes (Chapter 6).
The fact that there is latent demand among 16-18-year-olds in England to pursue mathematics is reflected in the high share of students taking mathematics as an AS level when this was widely provided. Advanced Subsidiary (AS) levels were reformed in 2001 with the intention that students would take four AS levels at 17, dropping one and continuing with three subjects to full A levels at 18. The objective was to broaden young people’s study and enable them to “try out” a wider range of subjects, (reforms since 2015 have reduced students’ options to take AS levels in England). In 2001, when AS levels were initially introduced, the share of students taking mathematics as an additional “broadening” AS subject was four times higher than those taking a range of comparison subjects including English, geography, and physics at AS level (QCA, 2007[45]). The experience of the AS levels suggests that students in England see the value of mathematics and of studying it after 16. The comparative difficulty of the subject might be one factor that puts students off studying mathematics post-16 (see Chapter 6).
Other systems, such as Ireland, New Zealand, and Singapore, offer their students a range of different mathematics levels and options to serve varied interests, needs and future aspirations among students. In these systems, mathematics is not compulsory for the duration of upper secondary education, but they achieve much higher rates of participation than England (see Chapter 5)
Promoting teaching and learning that support high self-efficacy and low anxiety is important
Students in Singapore stand out with very high levels of enjoyment, self-efficacy and low anxiety (Table 7.2 and Table 7.3). These positive views towards mathematics might contribute to high levels of participation when it becomes optional post-16. In contrast, in Austria, where all students are required to study mathematics, enjoyment levels are lower than the OECD average. Since enjoyment is positively associated with performance, in cases where students are obliged to study mathematics it is important to invest in teaching and learning approaches that also promote enjoyment.
Between 2012 and 2022, mathematics self-efficacy declined significantly in New Zealand while mathematics anxiety rose. The drop in mathematics self-beliefs may partially be behind the considerable drop in performance over the same period, from a mean score of 500 to 479. In 2022, while New Zealand was the 9th among OECD systems in reading, it was 22nd in numeracy (see Chapter 3).
This chapter has identified several common trends in countries’ views towards mathematics, and how these might shape students’ participation and performance. In line with these trends, several policy pointers for England can be identified around how countries set policies to promote positive views on the subject, boost participation and results, as well as support equity.
1. Few countries demonstrate an overwhelming “culture of mathematics”
Data on student enjoyment of mathematics and self-beliefs around the subject seem to suggest that almost no country has an overwhelming predisposition or predominant culture of liking mathematics. Even in some countries with very high performance and high participation, students report low enjoyment and/or negative self-beliefs towards mathematics such as Austria, Japan and Korea.
This seems to suggest that, as England looks to improve participation and performance in mathematics at 16-18, there is no intrinsic cultural reason why this should be more difficult or challenging that in other systems. Although of course historical patterns of participation in mathematics influence perceptions. It also suggests that all countries must invest in making mathematics attractive, as well as fostering students’ confidence and comfort in tackling mathematics problems given the influence of these factors on student’s performance.
Policy pointers for England
Recognise that high participation and good performance in mathematics does not depend on a “culture of mathematics” where students overwhelmingly enjoy the subject.
Acknowledge the important role of building positive self-beliefs and supporting students to feel confident about their capacities to tackle the subject.
2. At 15, students in England have more positive attitudes towards mathematics than their peers across the OECD on average
Fifteen-year-olds in the United Kingdom report relatively positive attitudes towards mathematics vis-à-vis their OECD peers. The most recent data from PISA 2022 reveal that in the United Kingdom a similar share of students (40%) as the OECD average (39%) agree that mathematics is one of their favourite subjects. The figures for mathematics self-efficacy and anxiety are also comparatively positive being respectively well above, and well below the OECD average.
Such positive data highlight contrast significantly with the very low shares of young people studying mathematics post-16 – 16.5% in 2018/19. While the low share of young people studying mathematics post-16 to a large extent reflects the fact that young people typically study just three or four A level subjects at 16-18, it does not explain the very low share of students who do Core Maths (1.9% in 2018). Core Maths caters for students not doing A level maths but who achieved Grade 4 or above in GCSE mathematics. The contrast between young people’s perceptions of maths at 15 and the low shares of young people who continue to engage with the subject post-16 suggest the importance of England exploring ways to can ensure that students can continue to build on their existing positive beliefs and engagement in mathematics to boost participation at 16-18.
Policy pointers for England
Recognise that low participation in mathematics at 16-18 in England may be influenced more by limitations in the offer than distinctively negative attitudes towards the subject in the country.
Respond to latent demand to study mathematics at 16-18 by considering multiple mathematics options (e.g., as is the case in British Columbia, Denmark, Ireland, New Zealand, and Singapore). Such a practice provides the students with the opportunity of studying mathematics in a way that is more tailored to their interests, ambitions, which might foster participation.
Take steps to raise greater awareness of Core Maths among young people not continuing mathematics in post-16 education to increase participation.
3. Promoting positive views and attitudes towards mathematics can support more equitable distributions of maths skills across society
Across the OECD, girls, as well as socio-economically disadvantaged students report lower enjoyment of mathematics, lower self-efficacy, and higher anxiety, vis-à-vis boys and socio‑economically advantaged peers (OECD, 2013[29]; OECD, 2023[27]). These negative attitudes influence the lower engagement and performance among these groups. Closing the gender and socio-economic gaps in enjoyment and self-beliefs can help to close performance gaps in mathematics, and in turn, achieve a more equitable distribution of mathematics skills across society. These findings are particularly important for England, as well as many other English‑speaking systems give their high gender gaps in mathematics performance.
Policy pointers for England
Recognise the impact of self-beliefs around mathematics (such as self-efficacy and anxiety) in mathematics performance and participation.
Acknowledge the patterns of inequity in attitudes and self-beliefs towards maths across groups of students from different backgrounds such as gender and socio‑economic background, and associations with inequities in mathematics performance.
Undertake research to explore why the gender gap is greater in the United Kingdom both in terms of performance and attitudes towards maths.
Explore how to promote positive attitudes towards mathematics among the groups of students who on average have less positive attitudes towards the discipline, such as girls and socio-economically disadvantaged students. Policies might draw on countries with small gender gaps in terms of attitudes towards mathematics (e.g., Portugal and Lithuania) and small differences related socio-economic background.
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← 1. The question “Mathematics is one of my favourite subjects” in PISA 2022 is part of an index that captures the Preference of mathematics over other core subjects. Understanding the student-level association between this index and mathematics performance would shed further light on understanding the country-level association which is often vulnerable to response-style bias. This student-level association while currently unavailable, will be published in the forthcoming Volume V of PISA 2022.
← 2. This figure does not account for interaction with performance.
← 3. The instrumental motivation index was not included in PISA 2022
← 4. The intrinsic motivation index was not included in PISA 2022. It is possible that the relationship between intrinsic motivation to learn mathematics and performance might have changed over time.
← 5. The student-level relationship between mathematics self-efficacy and performance for PISA 2022 will be published in the forthcoming Volume V of PISA 2022.
← 6. The student-level relationship between mathematics anxiety and performance for PISA 2022 will be published in the forthcoming Volume V of PISA 2022.
← 7. Some students who did not achieve passing marks in national certifications at 16 (GCSEs) in maths will continue to work towards this at 16-18, representing 29.8% of the total 46.3%. A minority of students also take Core Maths (1.9% in 2021), originally intended to broader participation in maths for students not taking A level maths.