Disinflation and a mild improvement in the global economic outlook will support a modest recovery (Table 1). In 2024, subdued external demand will limit exports while higher financing costs will continue to reduce private investment and consumption. In 2025, easing inflation and a moderate recovery in foreign demand will allow growth to gain some momentum. Unemployment is expected to increase slightly between 2023 and 2025.

Risks to economic activity are balanced. Geopolitical tensions could intensify and lead to a rise in energy prices, which would weigh on economic activity. Financial risks, including in the real estate sector, warrant vigilance, despite an overall solid financial situation of households, businesses and banks. Upside risks include sizeable household savings accumulated during the pandemic which could boost private consumption. Exports, particularly in the aeronautical sector, could catch up faster than expected.

The budget balance deteriorated and public debt rose markedly during the COVID-19 pandemic. A recent public spending review identified in 2023 potential savings of around 0.4% of GDP per year by 2027, and new spending cuts have been decided for 2024, amounting to 0.7% of GDP. The pension reform introduced in 2023 will also help reduce spending.

Additional efforts are vital to lower government debt more markedly. Fiscal outcomes will have to be strengthened by containing the wage bill and streamlining social and healthcare coverage, spending by local governments and tax expenditures, while taking into account short-term economic conditions when defining the pace of

adjustment. Fiscal consolidation focused on spending restraint will create space to raise investment in education, digitalisation and other measures to boost potential growth and finance the green transition. The effectiveness of the fiscal framework would be strengthened by making public finance programming laws binding and fully implementing expenditure reviews.

Potential growth and productivity have decelerated over recent years. The employment rate has continued to increase but remains below the OECD average.

Lifting productivity growth hinges on a wider diffusion of digital technologies, continued reductions of still high regulatory barriers and stronger innovation. Easing barriers to entry and regulations in some services sectors would support competition. France has a dynamic innovation ecosystem that should continue to be supported.

The past few years have seen ambitious policy efforts to boost competitiveness and employment. This includes cutting business taxes and reducing social charges on low salaries, along with reforms to unemployment benefits, apprenticeships and vocational training. The government is implementing a better-connected and more supportive “network for employment”, which includes stakeholders in employment and integration, coordinated by “France Travail”. The reform is promising, but the task’s complexity and the challenging coordination efforts involved will require careful implementation. Apprenticeships continue to receive strong support, which could be made more effective by better targeting support to young people with low skills who face difficulties transitioning into the labour market on their own. Stepping up the provision of early childcare services should support women’s participation in the labour market.

France reduced greenhouse gas emissions by 25% between 1990 and 2022, and recently implemented consistent medium and long-term environmental planning. Still, reaching the 2030 targets will require stronger policy efforts across several sectors (Figure 3).

Average carbon prices are relatively high but uneven across sectors. France offers substantial implicit fossil fuel subsidies, particularly to the farming and fishery sectors. Accelerating the phase-out of these subsidies and other tax expenditures while aligning prices across sectors would strengthen the effectiveness of carbon pricing.

More effective sectoral policies would help reduce emissions. Transport emissions are still far from 2030 targets. Large-scale support for electric vehicles, combined with measures to enhance public transport and encourage alternative modes of transport such as cycling, will support more rapid progress. Simplifying administrative procedures for low- and middle-income households to obtain public support would accelerate thermal residential renovations.

Students perform at a level similar to OECD peers although the link between socio-economic background and educational outcomes is particularly strong (Figure 4).

School autonomy is more limited than in many OECD countries. Autonomy can support educational outcomes but requires quality school leadership. Strengthening the role, responsibilities and career paths of school leaders could help, particularly in primary education and for schools facing challenging socio-economic contexts.

France spends around one third more per upper-secondary student than the average OECD country but around 9% less per primary student. Continuing to rebalance the distribution of spending between primary and secondary schools could provide greater support to children in the early years of their education.

Modern teaching practices like cognitive activation are used less often than in many OECD countries. Ensuring that teachers have sufficient knowledge and skills, support, feedback and time would support their use.

France is struggling to attract teachers, particularly in specific subjects and geographic areas. The teacher training system is complex and of variable quality. Improving working conditions, and considering to review remuneration, particularly for primary teachers and teachers in the middle of their career, would increase the attractiveness of the teaching profession.

The classification of some disadvantaged schools as “priority education” generates strong threshold effects, which precludes many disadvantaged students from much-needed support. A more progressive resource allocation to disadvantaged students would better align resources to students’ needs.

Young people without tertiary education, particularly those with vocational qualifications, struggle to integrate into the labour market. The reform of vocational secondary schools introduced in 2023 aims to improve this situation by fostering closer ties between employers and schools. Combining school and significant work experience helps to smoothly transition to employment and should continue to be supported. Young people need to be better informed about future job opportunities, in particular those linked to the digital and green transitions. Diversifying the profiles of career advisers and reducing the number of structures in charge can improve career guidance.

Few girls currently pursue scientific careers and boys are underrepresented in humanities, social sciences and care professions. Continuing to combat gender stereotypes through better information would support gender diversity across career paths.

Supporting the well-being of students is essential to create a more conducive learning environment and improve students’ outcomes. France has implemented plans to fight bullying and violence at school, which should continue to be treated as priority issues. Still, student discipline problems are more frequent than across OECD countries, according to the last PISA Survey. Teachers’ training for managing the classroom and student behaviour can be strengthened. Including students with special needs in regular classes has become more common, but additional efforts are needed to meet the substantial needs for hiring and training assistants.