A robust education policy framework is essential for developing human capital and meeting the labour market’s need for a skilled and productive labour force. This chapter, composed of four sub-dimensions, assesses the presence and efficacy of education strategies, legislation, programmes and institutions. The first sub-dimension, equitable education for an inclusive society, examines system governance and the quality of pre-university education starting from preschool. The second sub-dimension, teachers, looks at the selection, initial training and ongoing professional development and management of the teaching workforce. The third sub-dimension, school-to-work transition, focuses on VET governance and the relevance of the labour market to the outcomes of higher education. The fourth sub-dimension, skills for green-digital transition, explores the frameworks and initiatives for fostering green and digital skills in education curricula.
Western Balkans Competitiveness Outlook 2024: Bosnia and Herzegovina
8. Education policy
Abstract
Key findings
Bosnia and Herzegovina's score in education policy has decreased since 2021, remaining notably below the regional average (Table 8.1). The decline can largely be attributed to the economy’s underdeveloped policy frameworks for the development of green and digital skills—areas that are being assessed for the first time. In most other areas, such as ensuring equitable education and the education and management of teachers, Bosnia and Herzegovina’s performance has generally remained stagnant.
Table 8.1. Bosnia and Herzegovina’s scores for education policy
The key findings are:
The decentralisation of education funding in Bosnia and Herzegovina has resulted in notable disparities at both the entity and the canton level. Namely, this variation leads to significant differences in equipment, staffing, and other resource allocation across educational institutions, which in turn affects the overall quality and equity of education – especially in early childhood education and care (ECEC), which is most dependent on municipal funding.
Bosnia and Herzegovina lacks standardised national examinations, hampers efforts to compare and monitor student learning outcomes. Moreover, the economy's limited participation in international assessments, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), hinders the ability to develop valuable benchmarks for monitoring education policy and performance.
Policies and mechanisms supporting teachers’ professional development are underdeveloped in both entities. Namely, inconsistent standards for evaluating teacher performance can adversely impact teaching quality and discourage continuous learning. As such, participating in assessments like the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) could provide comparative insights into teachers' and school leaders working conditions and learning environments at their schools.
Although several new domestic and donor-funded projects have been implemented, there has been limited progress in enhancing vocational education and training (VET) and increasing the labour market relevance of higher education. High youth unemployment and NEET (not in education, employment, or training) rates, standing at 31.9% and 17.6%, respectively, in 2022, highlight ongoing issues with the education system’s ability to equip students with the required knowledge and skills.
Recent state-level initiatives, such as aligning its policy framework with the European Digital Competence Framework and launching the Re-imagining Education programme, reveal the government's importance in enhancing digital skills among students. However, the economy continues to grapple with challenges from inadequate digital infrastructure in schools, including limited computer availability and a lack of Internet connectivity.
State of play and key developments
In recent years, net enrolment rates in all levels of education in Bosnia and Herzegovina have remained relatively constant. In 2022, net enrolment for students at the level of primary education was 85.1%, which represented a small decrease from 2020 (87%). Similarly, net enrolment rates for lower secondary education (93%) and upper secondary education (79%) have largely stagnated over the past few years, at levels lower than EU and OECD averages (98% and 93%, respectively) (UIS, 2023[1]). Additionally, there has been a decline in the number of students enrolled at all levels of education, reflecting the economy’s shrinking population due to emigration and declining birth rates. Primary school enrolment decreased from more than 161 000 students in 2017 to fewer than 143 000 in 2023, with a notable drop of 5 000 students between 2019 and 2020. Similarly, enrolment in lower and upper secondary education decreased by 8 600 and 18 800 students, respectively, from 2017 to 2023 (Figure 8.1).
Figure 8.1. Enrolment in primary and secondary education in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2017-23)
Number of students enrolled (thousands)
Source: UIS (2023[1]).
Sub-dimension 7.1: Equitable education for an inclusive society
Bosnia and Herzegovina has shown limited progress in strengthening the system governance of its education system, largely hindered by the complex institutional structure guiding the various state, entity, cantonal, and district authorities.1 This complexity of education governance has led to a proliferation of more than 70 education policy documents, ranging from strategies and framework laws to guidelines (ETF, 2020[2]). Apart from their volume, these documents do not always share common goals, nor do they always outline mechanisms for the relevant authorities to translate their objectives into clear implementation plans with measurable outcomes (Guthrie et al., 2022[3]).
At the state level, the Ministry of Civil Affairs (MoCA) has a separate Department for Education, although this solely serves as a co-ordinating body to the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The MoCA is responsible for proposing national frameworks, policies, and laws governing education. There is also the Agency for Preschool, Primary and Secondary Education (APOSO), which establishes learning standards and curriculum in preschool, primary, and secondary education and contributes to the introduction of qualification frameworks and standards. There are several laws – such as the Framework Law on Preschool Education and the Common Core Comprehensive Development Programmes in Preschool Education – that serve as a basis for harmonising legislation and standards vertically within the economy. Bosnia and Herzegovina does not have a national qualification framework, although efforts are under way to form a working group that would develop and align such a framework with the European Qualifications Framework (EQF).
State-level guidelines and laws are passed to the ministries of education and pedagogical institutes of the two entities, Republika Srpska (RS) and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH), as well as the Brčko District for implementation. However, because policy formulation and implementation largely take place at the entity (and district) level, there is significant variation between their approaches to ensuring and bolstering system governance. In terms of structure, while the FBiH has a very dispersed education system – distributed among ten cantonal ministries and 13 pedagogical institutes – there is no evidence of efforts to harmonise policies or governance across cantons; instead, their respective educational governing bodies operate within their jurisdiction and do not co-ordinate with one another. By contrast, RS has a much more centralised system, with only one ministry and two pedagogical institutes.
RS’s education policy framework is guided by the Strategy for the Development of Preschool, Primary, and Secondary Education (SDPPSE) (2022-30), and the entity is currently in the process of adopting the new Strategy for the Development of Science and Technology, Higher Education, and ICT Industry (2023-30). Together, these two policies aim to enhance educational outcomes by innovating curricula, shifting towards a learning-centric system, and improving professional training for educators. Conversely, the FBiH does not have an overarching education strategy, although it has several strategic plans2 in place to which most cantons adhere. While their scope is not restricted to education, these policies incorporate key components, such as enhancing education outcomes to promote socio-economic development or improving childhood development.
While RS and the FBiH have made efforts to strengthen their policy framework, monitoring and evaluation remains limited in both. Neither entity has developed an indicator framework for their respective education systems, and no entity-level (or national) assessments of learning outcomes exist. As such, this lack of evaluation poses an obstacle to evidence-based policy making for education. Conversely, both entities have established opportunities for their relevant bodies to discuss the progress and implementation of education policies. In RS, the Ministry of Education and Culture submits semi-annual reports to the government on the progress towards achieving education goals, whereas in the FBIH, there are periodic meetings of cantonal ministers of education during which they discuss the current status of reforms and next steps.
While there have been advances in improving the quality and equity of ECEC, further progress has been limited due to funding challenges. The aforementioned Framework Law on Preschool Education (2007) is the guiding state-level document for ECEC. Since its passage, this law made enrollment in preschool for the year before elementary school mandatory for all children. Most entity and cantonal laws align with this regulation; the aim is to ensure equal educational opportunities for every child, irrespective of socio-economic status or geographic location (rural versus urban areas). This law was previously complemented by the Platform for the Development of Preschool Education (2017-22). Although the platform recently expired, it had provided a framework for increasing coverage of preschool education, improving its quality and inclusiveness, and ensuring sufficient and predictable funding – objectives vital to harmonising Bosnia and Herzegovina’s ECEC framework with EU standards and goals. At the entity level, various strategic documents and laws regulate ECEC (Table 8.2).
Table 8.2. ECEC strategies in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Sources: Responses provided by the MoCA (state), the Federal Ministry of Education and Science (FBiH) and the Ministry of Education and Culture (RS) as part of the CO 2024 assessment.
In 2023, participation in early childhood education educational development (ISCED 013) and pre-primary education (ISCED 02) remained very low, registering 22.3% of children in the FBiH and 28% in RS.4 However, ensuring equity within ECEC systems is a central concern embedded in the policies and programmes of both entities, which have undertaken broader efforts to make ECEC more accessible to marginalised groups. These efforts include awareness raising (performed by RS and the FBiH), reducing costs for families (only done by RS), using inclusive language, and adjusting facilities’ opening hours (only carried out in the FBiH). In RS, the SDPPSE 2022-30 includes several explicit objectives on improving equity by expanding preschool programmes to children in underserved communities, raising awareness about the importance of early education, and promoting the inclusion of children with developmental disabilities. While this same policy focus is absent in the FBiH, the Federal Ministry of Education and Science launched a new programme in 2023, “Support to projects to improve the inclusiveness of preschool, primary and secondary education”. This initiative aims to improve the inclusiveness of education for selected groups, including children who are socio-economically disadvantaged, live in remote rural areas, have developmental disabilities, or are of Roma ethnicity.
However, further improvements to ECEC – both related to and beyond inclusivity – are impeded by the field’s decentralised funding. Namely, the decentralisation of the education system negatively impacts the uniformity of funding, given that preschool education is financed from municipal budgets. Thus, the uneven economic development of different parts of the economy tends to result in irregular, insufficient funding mechanisms that can structurally undermine the sustainability of preschool education. This, in turn contributes to a lack of equipment, inadequate funding for educational staff, and difficulties in providing transport for students (Camović and Bećirović-Karabegović, 2022[4]). Moreover, preschool education receives a much smaller proportion of public funding than primary education in Bosnia and Herzegovina: in 2019, only 6.0% of money spent on formal education went towards ECEC – only one-eighth of that spent on primary education (Table 8.3). Of note, this level of spending on ECEC is below EU levels: whereas Bosnia and Herzegovina spends approximately 0.21% of its GDP on preschool education, EU Member States spend an average of 0.57% of national GDP.5
Table 8.3. Education expenditure in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2016-19)
Source: Camović and Bećirović-Karabegović (2022[4]).
Consequently, both entities rely on donor funding to finance their ECEC strategies, but this level of financial support is still insufficient. Preschools can procure additional funding through donations and the participation of parents. Less developed municipalities allocate a lower level of funding for co-financing preschool institutions, leading to increased fees for the parents. As such, in certain areas where the cost of participation in ECEC is higher due to these expected contributions, rates of participation tend to be lower. Indeed, while only 25% of children aged 3 to 5 years old attended preschool in 2020, most of these children were from urban areas and came from higher-income, more highly educated households, revealing how this system can perpetuate inequities in access (UNICEF, 2020[5]).
Data collection on ECEC is conducted at both the state and entity levels. The Agency for Statistics of BiH and each entity’s respective institute of statistics gathers a range of information, including the number and types of ECEC providers, child enrolment rates, child-to-staff ratios, and staff qualifications. Methodologies for data collection are not harmonised between entity and cantonal statistical offices, and figures regarding certain outcomes do not fully reveal the significant disparities between different groups.6 In this way, comparing ECEC systems across BiH can be difficult, undermining the utility of collecting these statistics. However, in 2023, the “Technical assistance for pre-school education in BiH” project was initiated with a key objective: establishing databases at competent education institutions, thereby illustrating a stride towards standardising data collection on ECEC across the economy.
Ongoing initiatives to guarantee quality instruction for all have yielded positive results in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Established by the APOSO in 2018, the common core curriculum sets clear mathematics, science, and the Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian language standards. The curriculum is designed around competence-based learning, emphasising the desired learning outcomes or results that students should achieve by the end of certain educational stages. Defined in terms of knowledge, skills or competencies, these outcomes are designed to illustrate what students can do due to their education.
Learning standards for students are well defined but vary significantly between entities as well as among cantons. This consequently limits the capacity of government actors to assess learning outcomes across schools, cantons, and entities. In RS, the curriculum for primary education defines learning outcomes for each subject and the criteria for students’ assessment. Moreover, the Ministry of Education and Culture of RS is drafting a new rulebook to facilitate the implementation of regular standardised assessments of student learning. Currently, matura exams are conducted experimentally only for students in Grade 9. Conversely, in the FBiH, there is a common core curriculum, although assessment and evaluation policies vary among cantons. For instance, students in the Sarajevo and Tuzla Cantons take an external matura exam at the end of Grade 9,7 whereas students in other cantons only must complete school-based assessments, graded from 1 (insufficient) to 5 (excellent). This latter use of grade-point average and teacher-graded marks is not standardised; indeed, only three of the fourteen administrative units in Bosnia and Herzegovina have standardised data on student learning (Guthrie et al., 2022[3]).
There are no regular, standardised exams or assessments of student learning at the state level. Instead, Bosnia and Herzegovina relies on participation in international assessments, including the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). However, even participation in these assessments is inconsistent: the economy only participated twice in the TIMSS (in 2007 for Grade 8 and 2019 for Grade 4) and once in PISA (in 2018). No clear measures were adopted by Bosnia and Herzegovina to address the findings of PISA 2018 or TIMSS 2019, although at the canton level some cantons have started reforming their curricula in line with these assessments’ recommendations.8 Looking to the future, the economy’s commitments are mixed: while it did not take part in the 2022 PISA assessment and has not confirmed involvement in future cycles of PISA, it has committed to participating in both the TIMSS 2023 assessment as well as the 2023 International Computer and Information Literacy Study. However, without regular participation in these assessments, longitudinal performance – and therefore potential progress – is challenging to monitor, limiting the use of their findings to shape policies or reforms.
The economy boasts one of the lowest rates of early school leavers, defined as individuals aged 18-24 years with up to a lower secondary education and no further training, in the region. Indeed, in 2021, Bosnia and Herzegovina reported an early leavers rate of only 4.7%, which was notably below the regional average of 7.4% and the EU average of 8.0% (Eurostat, 2023[6]). However, it is important to note that this figure does not reveal existing differences between students: for example, among Roma students, dropout rates remain much higher, estimated at around 15%,9 although systematic data collection on this population’s proportion of early school leaving does not exist. To combat dropout, RS has instituted several policies, including offering free textbooks,10 financial support for transportation, and discussions and training to prevent early leaving among Roma children. Conversely, there is no available information regarding specific measures or activities implemented in the FBiH.
Sub-dimension 7.2: Teachers
Initial teacher education (ITE) and selection in Bosnia and Herzegovina exhibit wide variation, given that it falls entirely within the entities' competencies. While the FBiH lacks a unified policy framework for ITE—signalling limited progress since the last CO assessment cycle—the SDPPSE 2022‑30 of RS contains a strategic goal regarding the provision of professional training programmes to teachers.
To enter ITE programmes in the FBiH, candidates only need to show a four-year high school diploma. Conversely, in RS, candidates need both to have attended high school and to have passed tertiary entrance exams. Then, teachers in both entities must pass a professional exam to formally enter the profession; candidates in RS are additionally subject to a one-year probationary period.
Only limited structural policies exist in either entity that seeks to bolster the profession’s competitiveness and thus attract new talent. Throughout 2022, RS increased the wages of school employees a total of three times. Such salary increases are crucial for boosting the attractiveness of the teaching profession, as Bosnia and Herzegovina has one of the lower annual gross statutory starting salaries11 of teachers in the Western Balkans across pre-primary, primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education (Eurydice, 2023[7]). No policies exist regarding other augmented benefits (such as bonuses or leave), improved working conditions, or increased professional autonomy for teachers. Moreover, policies designed to retain and support these new teachers – beyond initially encouraging them to enter the profession – are similarly limited.
Like their selection and education, teacher professional development and management in Bosnia and Herzegovina is decentralised, with each entity responsible for its own policies. However, there have been some efforts at the state level in this domain, namely the development of a model12 supporting the professional development of educators and teachers through guidance and awareness raising. In RS, professional development programmes are outlined in the SDPPSE (2022-30), whereas teacher education programmes are a pillar under the FBiH’s ongoing programme on improving inclusiveness in its education systems. Available programmes include in-person and online courses and seminars, education conferences, observation visits, and formal qualification programmes. In both entities, professional development is required and does not impact career progression or salary increases.
In terms of career structure, professional teacher standards exist in both entities, but they are rarely tied to progression. In RS, teachers undergo evaluations through self-appraisals as well as assessments by school leadership teams, such as principals or school boards. However, this progression from mentor to advisor and finally to senior advisor is generally linked to years of teaching experience rather than performance, which can undermine teachers’ incentives to improve performance and develop new skills or competencies. In the FBiH, there is significant variation across cantons, making it difficult to assess and compare these pathways. For example, in the West Herzegovina canton, teacher standards are defined but not linked to promotion processes for teachers, while in the Sarajevo canton, the use of teacher standards was discontinued due to administrative burdens (Guthrie et al., 2022[3]).
Sub-dimension 7.3: School-to-work transition
While Bosnia and Herzegovina has made some progress in easing the school-to-work transition in recent years, there is still room for improvement. Over the past decade, the share of youth not in education, employment or training (NEET) has fallen by more than ten percentage points, reaching 17.6% in 2022 (World Bank, 2024[8]). Part of this remarkable drop is likely due to the high levels of youth emigration; indeed, a 2021 survey found that 47% of Bosnian youth aspired to emigrate – of which half of the respondents sought to leave permanently (United Nations Population Fund, 2021[9]). However, the NEET rate is still nearly double the EU average of 9.6% (in 2022) (Eurostat, 2023[10]). Moreover, the youth unemployment rate has halved between 2012 and 2022, decreasing from 63.1% to 31.9% – but remains almost double that of EU Member States (16.3% in 2022) (World Bank, 2024[11]). Such chronically high NEET and youth unemployment rates in part reflect difficulties with ensuring education systems provide the labour force with the necessary knowledge and skills to facilitate their integration into the labour market (European Commission, 2023[12]).
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the institutional frameworks guiding VET governance are moderately developed, although VET still suffers from limited monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. Several policies provide the foundation for state-level governance: one central law is the Framework Law on Secondary Vocational Education and Training, which outlines guidelines and standards for VET in line with EU goals. Other key documents13 underscore the importance of well‑developed, efficient VET governance. However, clear regulations for work-based learning (WBL) and monitoring mechanisms remain absent at the state level, posing challenges for sector oversight. At the entity level, RS and the FBiH have quality assessment and certification mechanisms characterised by clear quality standards and regular evaluations and expectations, ensuring rigorous VET qualifications.
One notable donor-funded initiative aimed at improving VET governance is the EU’s Technical Assistance for VET Education project.14 Expected to be implemented between 2023 and 2026, the EUR 3.35 million project aims to build the capacity of education authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as raise awareness in order to improve the employment prospects of VET graduates.
Social partners15 play a central role in shaping VET governance, as their engagement can bolster the efficacy and responsiveness of the VET system. Although the quality and relevance of these social partners’ involvement in VET is still limited in the economy, the APOSO – the government body tasked with setting standards and developing VET policy nationally – includes social partners in working groups. These working groups are then involved in the development of sectoral occupational standards, as well as the development of core and school curricula. Moreover, the Framework Law on Secondary Vocational Education and Training outlines the establishment of tripartite advisory councils (established at the entity, cantonal, and district levels), which include social partners. Enhanced co-operation between education institutions and social partners can be further used to better align curricula with the demands of the labour market, underscoring the utility of collecting social partners’ inputs.
Efforts to enhance the relevance of the labour market and the outcomes of higher education in Bosnia and Herzegovina have been demonstrated through several programmes to reform the education system. For instance, the newest Economic Reform Programme (ERP) 2024-26 contains a reform on improving the alignment of education and the development of practical knowledge and skills in the labour market (Directorate for Economic Planning, 2024[13]). The document also outlines respective actions to be undertaken by the two entities, including improving the system of adult education (RS) and improving linkages between study programmes and the needs of the labour market (FBiH). Both entities touch upon labour market relevance in their respective strategies.16
A strong emphasis is placed on the internationalisation of curriculum and fostering student mobility as key components of the economy’s efforts to strengthen labour market outcomes. At the state level, Bosnia and Herzegovina participates in the EU Erasmus+ programme. Additionally, RS has been particularly proactive in advancing internationalisation, offering scholarships for studying abroad, facilitating international exchanges, and introducing English language instruction at universities.
Moreover, both entities employ several targeted mechanisms to align education programmes with labour market demands. Despite these efforts, issues with coordination and clarity of accreditation for higher education institutions (HEIs) challenge a better alignment of the relevance of the labour market and the outcomes of higher education. In the FBiH, there are several block grants and scholarships to support in-demand programmes as well as awareness campaigns for prospective students to support their selection. Similarly, RS also offers grants and conducts communication campaigns; additionally, the entity uses labour market information to inform curriculum design, which in turn aligns the higher education sector with labour market demands.
Sub-dimension 7.4: Skills for the green-digital transition
Bosnia and Herzegovina possesses a relatively underdeveloped framework guiding digital skills development, although several ongoing efforts demonstrate the economy’s commitment to further developing this framework. At the state level, the working document “Priorities in integrating entrepreneurial and digital competence into education systems in Bosnia and Herzegovina 2019-30” seeks to align digital skills in the economy with the European Digital Competence Framework. Moreover, the Framework Law on Vocational Education and Training references the necessity of cultivating digital skills, although it does so indirectly rather than making it an explicit priority (ETF, 2019[14]). However, while these policies represent a solid first step, no dedicated overarching framework remains.
While the development of digital skills is not incorporated into primary or secondary education curricula, there are some standards to ensure the widespread availability of ICT in schools, teacher training on ICT, and the integration of ICT in school curricula.17 Improving access is an important prerequisite due to low levels of digital infrastructure in schools: on average, there is one computer available for every 20 students in Bosnia and Herzegovina (compared to 1.2 in OECD countries) (Directorate for Economic Planning, 2024[13]). Additionally, an estimated 30% of primary and secondary schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina do not have access to the Internet, which is a prerequisite for the instruction of most digital skills.
However, in recent years, the economy has made several strides towards bolstering its support for students’ digital skills. For example, at the end of 2021, the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina launched the Re-imagining Education initiative, which was implemented in RS as well as two cantons in the FBiH (West-Herzegovina and Una-Sana) to support the development of digital and blended learning facilities. By the conclusion of the one-year programme, more than 2 000 teachers had received training for digital learning (Panjeta, 2022[15]). Another advancement was the submission of the new Action Plan for Digital Education to the European Commission in March 2023.
Both entities have policy frameworks in place that touch – albeit rather minimally – upon the importance of promoting digital skills. In RS, the new Strategy for the Development of Science and Technology, Higher Education and ICT Industry (2023-30) will place a significant focus on digital skills through several strategic priorities and measures. Similarly, FBiH’s Development Strategy 2021-27 includes one measure aimed at encouraging educational institutions to provide a higher level of knowledge and practice in the field of ICT by improving teachers’ knowledge and work to facilitate students’ acquisition of digital skills. Additionally, the ongoing FBIH programme “Support to programmes for the development of students’ functional knowledge and skills” seeks to support IT equipment procurement projects to cultivate digital competencies through coding and the use of digital technologies.
Green skills development in Bosnia and Herzegovina is still in its early stages. There are currently no policy measures at the state level to promote in students the knowledge, skills and attitudes needed for a greener and more sustainable economy, nor are there plans to adopt such measures. However, Bosnia and Herzegovina was invited to participate in the European Education Area working groups 2021-25 initiative. This initiative aims to bolster the resilience and inclusivity of education and training systems to prepare young individuals for the green and digital transition (European Commission, 2023[12]).
Conversely, both entities have made small strides in establishing the requisite policies and programmes to support the inclusion of green skills and knowledge into school curricula. FBiH’s Development Strategy 2021-27 includes one measure of raising awareness about the necessity of developing green skills. Moreover, education curricula in this entity include competencies such as valuing sustainability, promoting nature, encouraging adaptability, and collective action – all of which are central to supporting the green transition. RS’s draft Strategy for the Development of Science and Technology, Higher Education and ICT Industry references the need to adapt the higher education system to support the green circular economy. While this policy priority does not explicitly outline proficiencies in teaching students, there are clear linkages between this objective and ensuring the cultivation of green skills. Partnerships largely inform policies in this domain, although no data collection or evaluation activities were mentioned. However, opportunities exist within both formal and non-formal education settings to learn about the climate crisis and sustainability. Educators are supported in developing their knowledge and skills in this area, and various stakeholders, including students, staff, local authorities and the research and innovation community, actively learn about sustainability in the economy.
Overview of implementation of Competitiveness Outlook 2021 recommendations
Bosnia and Herzegovina’s progress in implementing the CO 2021 Recommendations is varied. While the economy has made notable strides in strengthening support for students enrolled in VET programmes, efforts toward strengthening system assessment through publishing regular analytical reports or establishing a technical accreditation system to support new teachers. Furthermore, no progress has been observed towards developing a state-level standardised assessment for evaluating student learning outcomes. Table 8.4 shows a more detailed picture of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s progress in implementing past recommendations for education policy.
Table 8.4. Bosnia and Herzegovina’s progress on past recommendations for education policy
The way forward for education policy
Considering the relatively limited level of the previous recommendations’ implementation, there are several areas in which Bosnia and Herzegovina could still enhance its education policy frameworks and programmes. As such, policy makers may wish to:
Commit to regular participation in international assessments. Given Bosnia and Herzegovina’s decentralised education structure and the lack of standardised student assessments, participation in international assessments, such as PISA, can serve as a promising avenue for providing data that facilitate comparisons not only between schools and demographics (such as gender and socio-economic background) but also with regional or EU peers. This will allow the economy to monitor progress in student outcomes and address disparities in access and quality of education. Similarly, participating in the OECD’s TALIS could provide comparative insights into teachers' and school leaders' working conditions and learning environments at their schools. However, this only works if the economy commits to participating in the same assessment for several years to generate trend data.
Consider reallocating funding to the most underserved areas of education. Because of the decentralised funding in the education sector, the relevant ministries must assess avenues for supplementing the budget in less well-funded areas, such as early childhood education. This will help to ensure a more consistent quality of education across all levels of education.
Enhance monitoring and evaluation across all areas of education policy. Currently, the economy lacks the evaluation framework for effectively monitoring – and thus improving – performance and outcomes within the education system. As such, both the state and entity governments should prioritise enhancing data collection and systematic reporting efforts so as to facilitate a more comprehensive, accurate assessment of the quality of education policy. Moreover, given the lack of standardisation between cantons, entities, and the Brčko District, the respective ministries of education should consider working towards aligning their definitions and standards to ensure increased comparability both among one another and outside the economy. The United States’ Common Education Data Standards serves as a good example of establishing common data standards and definitions (Box 8.1).
Encourage competent education authorities at the entity and district level to update and implement professional teacher standards. Currently, professional standards do not adequately support teachers’ professional development and personal improvement. As such, the relevant education authorities should ensure that they have up-to-date teacher standards in place that cover teaching knowledge, pedagogical practices, and professional responsibilities and values (Guthrie et al., 2022[3]). If properly implemented, these standards can then serve as the basis for improved appraisal processes that can support career progression (linked to performance rather than years of experience).
Adopt a comprehensive digital competence policy framework. Given the importance of digital skills development for students, Bosnia and Herzegovina could design and adopt a common digital competency framework for students throughout the economy (for example, see Box 8.2). Such a policy might help a greater proportion of students to progress from basic to advanced digital skills. Moreover, the adoption of this framework should ensure that all schools are equipped with the necessary technical resources to support digital learning effectively.
Box 8.1. Ensuring a common approach to data definition and collection: The United States’ Common Education Data Standards
The Common Education Data Standards (CEDS) serve as a vital framework for aligning educational data across the United States. Established in 2010 by the Department of Education, the CEDS encompasses data collected and used by institutions at all levels of education, ranging from ECEC to post-secondary education and adult learning.
The initiative aims to create common data standards – and thus, a common vocabulary – that facilitate a standardised approach to the reporting and analysis of this information. In turn, this ensures consistency and comparability nationwide. Updated annually, the CEDS is crucial for ensuring that policy makers at both state and national levels can carry out evidence-based policy making by fostering a common understanding of educational data. Furthermore, beyond improving data interoperability, the CEDS enables seamless data exchange between states themselves, enhancing collaboration and contributing to more effective education policies.
Source: US Department of Education (2024[16]).
Box 8.2. Examples of digital competence frameworks: Good practices by OECD member countries
Across the OECD area, several countries have developed and instituted digital competency frameworks aimed at promoting the development of digital skills both among students and teachers. Examples include:
The “Digital Learning Framework” in Ireland – This framework, which applies to both primary and secondary education, describes the practices of both students and teachers for learning and teaching with digital technologies. The framework is used to help identify and monitor areas of improvement.
The “Piano Scuola 4.0” School Digitalisation Plan in Italy – One of the two pillars of this plan is to foster “next generation labs,” which refers to promoting skills of students in areas key to the digital transition, such as coding or artificial intelligence. To monitor the outputs and outcomes of this project, data are collected every six months and used to compare schools’ performances on a national level.
The Schools Digital Strategy in New South Wales (Australia) – This framework offers an overarching view of how to enable the digital transformation of the education system. It proposes actions for key stakeholders, including the government, school leaders, teachers, and parents. Its roadmap outlines the progression from establishing the foundations for this transition to improving access to digital technologies and then evolving and enabling the future of learning. Emphasis remains on data-driven insights (assessing what tools, techniques, and pedagogies yield the best results) and equitable access.
Sources: OECD (2023[17]; 2023[18]).
References
[4] Camović, D. and J. Bećirović-Karabegović (2022), “Educational quality of early childhood education in Bosnia and Herzegovina”, European Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 11/4, pp. 1923-1936, https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.11.4.1923.
[13] Directorate for Economic Planning (2024), Economic Reform Programme of Bosnia and Herzegovina 2024-26, http://www.dep.gov.ba/naslovna/Archive.aspx?pageIndex=1&%3blangTag=en-US%5c&langTag=en-US.
[2] ETF (2020), Bosnia and Herzegovina: Education, Training and Employment Developments 2020, https://www.etf.europa.eu/sites/default/files/document/Country%20Fiche%202020%20Bosnia%20and%20Herzegovina%20Education%20Training%20and%20Employment%20Developments_0.pdf (accessed on 21 March 2024).
[14] ETF (2019), Digital Skills and Online Learning in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://www.etf.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2020-06/digital_factsheet_bosnia_and_herzegovina_0.pdf (accessed on 7 March 2024).
[12] European Commission (2023), Bosnia and Herzegovina 2023 Report, https://neighbourhood-enlargement.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2023-11/SWD_2023_691%20Bosnia%20and%20Herzegovina%20report.pdf.
[6] Eurostat (2023), Enlargement Countries - Education Statistics, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Enlargement_countries_-_education_statistics#Early_leavers_from_education_and_training (accessed on 7 March 2024).
[10] Eurostat (2023), Young People Neither in Employment nor in Education and Training (15-24 years), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tipslm90/default/table?lang=en&category=t_educ.t_educ_outc (accessed on 1 March 2024).
[7] Eurydice (2023), Teachers’ Actual Salaries, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/data-and-visuals/teachers-actual-salaries#tab-1 (accessed on 26 March 2024).
[3] Guthrie, C. et al. (2022), OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education: Bosnia and Herzegovina, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/oecd-reviews-of-evaluation-and-assessment-in-education-bosnia-and-herzegovina_a669e5f3-en (accessed on 22 March 2024).
[17] OECD (2023), Digital Education Outlook 2023: Towards an Effective Digital Education Ecosystem, https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/oecd-digital-education-outlook-2023_c74f03de-en#:~:text=The%202023%20Digital%20Education%20Outlook,prepared%20for%20a%20digital%20transformation.&text=The%20COVID%2D19%20pandemic%20has,be%20ready%20for%20digital%20e.
[18] OECD (2023), Shaping Digital Education: Enabling Factors for Quality, Equity and Efficiency, https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/shaping-digital-education_bac4dc9f-en.
[15] Panjeta, A. (2022), Project “Reimagining Education” Officially Completed, UNICEF, https://www.unicef.org/bih/en/stories/project-reimagining-education-officially-completed (accessed on 25 March 2024).
[16] U.S. Department of Education (2024), Common Education Data Standards, https://ceds.ed.gov/ (accessed on 2 May 2024).
[1] UIS (2023), UIS.Stat, http://data.uis.unesco.org/.
[5] UNICEF (2020), Situation Analysis of Children in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://www.unicef.org/bih/media/4971/file/Situation (accessed on 2 May 2024).
[9] United Nations Population Fund (2021), Survey on Youth Emigration in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://ba.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/youth_emigration_survey_in_bih_eng_final_0_0.pdf (accessed on 26 March 2024).
[11] World Bank (2024), Unemployment, Youth total (% of Total Labor Force Ages 15-24) (Modeled ILO Estimate) - Bosnia and Herzegovina, European Union, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.1524.ZS?locations=BA-EU (accessed on 2 May 2024).
[8] World Bank (2024), World Development Indicators, DataBank, https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators (accessed on 6 February 2023).
Notes
← 1. At the state level, there are the Ministry of Civil Affairs of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Agency for Development of Higher Education and Quality Assurance, and the Agency for Preschool, Primary and Secondary Education. In the RS, the Ministry of Education and Culture and the Ministry for Scientific and Technological Development, Higher Education and Information Society are the relevant bodies. In the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, there is the Federal Ministry of Education and Science of the FBIH along with ten cantonal ministries. Finally, the Department of Education of the Brčko District oversees the district’s education policy.
← 2. These strategies include the Development Strategy of FBiH 2021-27, the Strategic Plan for the Improvement of Early Growth and Development of Children in FBiH 2020-25, and the Programme of measures for the prevention of corruption in higher education in FBiH.
← 3. ISCED is the International Standard Classification of Education. For more information see: https://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/international-standard-classification-of-education-isced-2011-en.pdf
← 4. These figures come from the FBiH’s Institute for Statistics and RS’s Statistical Office as part of the CO 2024 assessment.
← 5. The share of GDP spent on preschool education in Bosnia and Herzegovina was found by multiplying the percentage of GDP spent on education with the percentage of education expenditures spent on preschool education, which totalled 0.21%. To calculate the EU average, data were collected from UNESCO’s UIS Statistics. The average uses data from 2019 and excludes Croatia, Estonia, and Ireland.
← 6. These groups include Roma children, children with disabilities, children from rural or low-income backgrounds, and migrant children.
← 7. The exception was during the school year 2019/20, when both cantons did not hold the external matura exam due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
← 8. Based on inputs of local stakeholders.
← 9. One estimate from the FBiH is that 15% of enrolled in primary education dropped out. See: https://bosniaherzegovina.un.org/sites/default/files/2021-06/Education%20MPTF%20submission%2031Aug2020%20for%20translation.pdf. Regarding RS, an Amnesty International report stated that the dropout rate of Roma children was three times the rate of other children in elementary education. See: https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/eur050022006en.pdf.
← 10. Free textbooks were provided for first and second grade students; for the third (and each subsequent) child from families with three or more children; and for children from poor families.
← 11. Salaries are measured in terms of purchasing power standard, which is an artificial currency unit defined by Eurostat to enable a fairer comparison across economies.
← 12. For additional information, please see: https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/bosnia-and-herzegovina/continuing-professional-development-teachers.
← 13. These documents include “Priorities for the integration of entrepreneurial learning and entrepreneurial key competencies in educational systems (2019-30)" and “Improving the quality and monitoring of professional education and training.”
← 14. For more about this project, see: https://www.dai.com/our-work/projects/bosnia-and-herzegovina-technical-assistance-for-vocational-education-and-training-vet-education.
← 15. Social partners in Bosnia and Herzegovina include the Economic Chamber, employer associations, trade unions, and the Alliance of Employers.
← 16. RS’s proposed Strategy for the Development of Science and Technology, Higher Education and ICT Industry (2023-30) includes several measures on improving relevance, while FBiH’s Development Strategy 2021-27 seeks to increase higher education quality and align programmes with social and economic needs.
← 17. These standards are outlined in documents like the “Guidelines for improving online teaching” and “Basic technical standards for ICT tools outline the framework for digital skills promotion in education.”