This chapter focuses on perceptions of government competence in Chile, particularly in terms of responsiveness and reliability. In Chile, perceptions of government reliability are significant drivers of trust in national government, local government and the national civil service, while perceptions of responsiveness have a key influence on trust in national government and the civil service. The chapter proposes a range of strategies to preserve and enhance institutional trust in Chile. These include enhancing competencies to deliver more human-centred and innovative public services.
Drivers of Trust in Public Institutions in Chile
Building Trust in Public Institutions
Abstract
Perceptions of the competence of public institutions are a key determinant for trust. Trust rooted in competence indicates that institutions are assessed as capable of achieving specific policy goals and carrying out their tasks effectively and efficiently, delivering results that meet people’s expectations (Bouckaert and Walle, 2003[1]; Houston and Harding, 2013[2]). In an increasingly complex context characterised by rising citizen expectations and multiple and overlapping challenges at different governance levels, perceptions of government competence significantly influence levels of trust in public institutions (OECD, 2022[3]; OECD, 2024[4]).
The OECD Framework on the Drivers of Trust in Public Institutions identifies two aspects of government competence: responsiveness and reliability. Government’s responsiveness refers to its capacity to provide efficient, quality, affordable, timely and citizen-centred public services that are co-ordinated across levels of government and satisfy users, supported by an innovative and efficient civil service able to respond to user needs. In turn, governments’ reliability relates to their capacity to anticipate needs and assess evolving challenges, minimise uncertainty in the economic, social and political environment, and effectively commit to future-oriented policies.
In Chile, perceptions of government reliability are significant drivers of trust in national government, local government and the national civil service, while perceptions of responsiveness have a key influence on trust in national government and the civil service. Results from the OECD Trust Survey suggest a mismatch between Chileans’ needs to access more responsive public services and expectations that public institutions would be able to deliver them, and there is broad room for improvement. This chapter analyses Chileans’ perceptions of responsiveness and reliability of public institutions in relation to ongoing policy initiatives in the country and good practices across OECD countries.
Since mid-1990s, Chile has strongly invested in modernising and bringing the State closer to citizens, as well as improving access to public services. As such, many of Chileans’ perceptions of government responsiveness are above OECD averages. However, efforts seem to fall short regarding most perceptions of the government’s ability to anticipate evolving contexts and challenges, and much remains to be done to equip the civil service with the competencies to deliver more human-centred and innovative public services.
Responsiveness refers to the fundamental objective of public administrations to serve citizens and deliver public services as needed and expected (Baena Olabe, 2017[5]; OECD, 2024[4]).
The OECD Trust Survey includes four questions to assess government responsiveness, evaluating whether public services and national policies are responsive to feedback from users and frontline public officials and whether government makes use of data and evidence in decision-making. Additionally, and as responsiveness involves not only the ability of government to provide efficient, quality, affordable, timely and citizen-centred public services but also that they satisfy users, the survey includes questions gauging population and user satisfaction with health, education and administrative services, and a question assessing satisfaction with different dimensions of the users’ experience with administrative services in more detail.
Overall, Chileans’ perceptions of government responsiveness are slightly more positive than the perceptions of people across OECD countries. However, they are less satisfied with public services than their OECD peers. Moreover, Chileans also find it slightly less likely that the government takes decisions based on the best available evidence, research and statistical data than people do on average across the OECD. This deficiency matters, because perceptions of evidence-based decision making are a significant driver of trust in the national government and the national civil service in Chile. This suggests that there is significant room for improvement, in particular to move towards human-centred public services and enhance evidence-based policymaking.
3.1.1. Despite Chile’s efforts to improve the quality, people’s satisfaction with public services is below the OECD average
Satisfaction with public education and healthcare services is comparatively low
Delivering services that satisfy users and help them solve their needs is a critical factor in assessing government responsiveness. As such, citizens' satisfaction with public services has been found to be highly associated with trust (OECD, 2022[6]; OECD, 2024[4]).
As a result of large policy reforms carried out during Pinochet’s dictatorship, Chile's health and education systems combine public and private service delivery, with a significant role played by the private sector in service provision. Private sector is the main education service provider in the country (OECD, 2024[7]), which comprises fully private and government-subsidised schools (i.e., school voucher system) (OECD, 2012[8]). Chile has the second-largest share of students enrolled in private schools across OECD countries. On average, around 6 in 10 students attended a private school in Chile, compared to only 1.5 students on average in the OECD, in 2021 (Figure 3.1). This affects all stages of primary and secondary education, whereas for instance in the UK, the share of students enrolled in private school is higher for upper secondary but lower for primary education. Further, although Chile’s healthcare insurance system covers 94% of the population, only 77% of Chileans are covered through public insurance and 17% through private insurance (Figure 3.2). In fact, Chile is one of five OECD countries where eligibility for a core set of healthcare services is not entirely provided by public programmes, but in part through private health insurance (OECD, 2023[9]).
Share of students enrolled in private schools, by level of education (2021)
Note: Countries are ranked in descending order of the share of students enrolled in private schools in upper secondary education.Source: (OECD, 2024[7]).
Source: OECD Health Statistics 2023.
Results from the 2023 OECD Trust Survey show that Chileans’ satisfaction with public healthcare and education services is comparatively low (Figure 3.3). Among people who indicated having a recent experience with these services, only 41% of Chileans are satisfied with the public education system, 16 percentage points below the OECD average for satisfaction with the overall education system of 57%. Similarly, data from an international opinion poll show only 11% of Chileans consider the education system as good, while 61% perceive it as mediocre (IPSOS, 2023[10]). In addition, 33% of Chileans who have had an experience in the last year are satisfied with the public healthcare system, 19 percentage points below the OECD average of satisfaction with the overall healthcare system of 52%. In the same line, according to the Ministry of Health, only 34% of Chileans reported being satisfied or very satisfied with the healthcare system (including both public and private providers) between 2007 and 2019 (Superintendencia de Salud, 2022[11]).
Note: The figure presents the within-country distributions of responses to the questions “On a scale of 0 to 10, how satisfied are you with the education system in [COUNTRY]?” (Panel A) and “On a scale of 0 to 10, how satisfied or dissatisfied are you with the healthcare system in [COUNTRY]?” (Panel B). Respondents with recent contact are those who reply in the affirmative to the question “In the last 2 years, have you or somebody in your household been enrolled in an educational institution in [COUNTRY]?” (Panel A) and “In the last 12 months, have you or somebody in your household personally made use of the healthcare system in [COUNTRY]?” (Panel B). For Chile, these questions make specific reference to public education and health systems as follow: “On a scale of 0 to 10, how satisfied are you with the public education system in Chile?” (Panel A) and “On a scale of 0 to 10, how satisfied or dissatisfied are you with the public healthcare system in Chile?” (Panel B). The “high satisfaction” proportion is the aggregation of responses from 6-10 on the scale; “neutral” is equal to a response of 5; “low satisfaction” is the aggregation of responses from 0-4; and “don't know” was a separate answer choice. “OECD” presents the unweighted average across countries.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
As highlighted during interviews with experts held in occasion of this study, these fragmented systems can contribute to low levels of satisfaction as they result in inconsistent and unequal quality services. For example, waiting times for selected public healthcare services in Chile can go up to 800 days (OECD, 2020[12]). Public healthcare service providers also request users to provide similar information more than once, increasing frictions and possible issues in health data management (Comisión Nacional de la Productividad, 2020[13]). Since 1990, several administrations have passed reforms to tackle some of these issues. At present, the Chilean government is implementing some structural changes in the provision of public education and healthcare. For instance, since 2017 it has started to gradually transfer the management of public education from local governments to a centralised public service. These reforms could be complemented by actions to improve service quality aspects that are relevant for a positive experience, such as reducing administrative procedures and waiting times, and improving courtesy in service delivery.
A majority of Chileans are satisfied with public administrative services, although below the OECD average
Results of the OECD Trust Survey show that a majority of Chileans (51%) are satisfied with administrative services,1 although this share is 15 percentage points below the average (66%) across OECD countries (Figure 3.4).
Share of recent users reporting different levels of satisfaction with the quality of administrative services in their country, 2023
Note: The figure presents the within-country distributions of responses among recent users to the question “On a scale of 0 to 10, how satisfied are you with the quality of administrative services in [COUNTRY] (for example applying for an ID, registering a birth or applying for benefits)?” Recent users replied in the affirmative to the question “In the last 12 months, have you personally made use of an administrative in [COUNTRY] (for example, applying for a passport, registering a birth, or applying for benefits etc.)?”. The “satisfaction” proportion is the aggregation of responses from 6-10 on the scale; “neutral” is equal to a response of 5; “dissatisfaction” is the aggregation of responses from 0-4; and “Don't know” was a separate answer choice. “OECD” presents the unweighted average across countries.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
The Ministry of Finance in Chile is currently advancing a standardised approach to improving services quality in public agencies, termed the Quality Service and User Experience System (Sistema de Calidad de Servicio y Experiencia Usuaria). The system is part of the Performance Management Programme (Programa de Mejoramiento de la Gestión, PMG) managed by the Budget Office (Dirección de Presupuestos, DIPRES). The system is supported with the broad guidance and technical assistance of the State Modernisation Secretariat of the Ministry of Finance and the Presidential Advisory Council of Transparency and Public Integrity (Comisión Asesora Presidencial para la Integridad Pública y Transparencia) of the Ministry General Secretariat of the Presidency (SEGPRES). It aims to enhance user experience and satisfaction with public services and build institutional capacity to identify and address service quality gaps. The system uses as a baseline the results of Chile’s User Satisfaction Measurement (Medición de Satisfacción Usuaria, MESU), complemented with the analysis of administrartive records or institutional user satisfaction results, mandating that public sector institutions leverage MESU results to design and implement service improvement action plans (Box 3.1). Staff in agencies that successfully implement the program will receive performance pay bonuses. At present, 136 participating agencies are drafting improvement plans, which will be implemented in 2025. Support for the system across the public sector is high, as it contributes to prioritising the service improvement agenda at the level of individual institutions.
Chile’s Measuring User Satisfaction Survey (Medición de Satisfacción Usuaria, MESU) is an annual survey of Chilean users of public services. It is operated by the Ministry of Finance. Based on their most recent experiences, respondents to the MESU are asked to give their overall level of satisfaction with the service and to rate service attributes like speed, courtesy, or accessibility.
MESU has expanded each year since its inception in 2015. Currently, it is applied in 78 public sector institutions, and in most recent editions, it has contacted tens of thousands of Chilean users per annum. Today MESU is one of the largest citizen and user feedback surveys operated by a government in an OECD member country. National findings from the survey are presented online, and more detailed findings for individual agencies are developed by the Ministry of Finance.
From 2023, with the implementation of the Quality of Service and User Experience System, MESU has gained even greater importance. It is now one of the key sources of evidence that public agencies use to develop service improvement plans.
The OECD and the State Modernisation Secretariat of the Ministry of Finance undertook a review of the MESU survey ahead of the 2023 round of data collection. This work resulted in improvements in the management and fieldwork process, as well as in a streamlined and clearer content of the survey focusing on the information which is most relevant to improving user satisfaction. Furthermore, this work also supports Chile in better leveraging user satisfaction data to inform the design and delivery of public services in the country.
Note: Authors and https://satisfaccion.gob.cl/
Despite advances and commitments in the State Modernisation Agenda 2022-26, such as the Quality of Service and User Experience System, the implementation of the Digital Transformation Law and the integrated platform for digital public services, there are lingering issues to be addressed to further improve people’s satisfaction with public services. Expert interviews carried out for this study suggest that Chile’s lower satisfaction with administrative services compared to its OECD peers could be associated with the country’s limited strategic approach to public services. Chile lacks an overarching strategy or vision setting priorities for public service improvements, and public agencies do not coordinate the design and delivery of public services, potentially leading to fragmentation. The Quality Service and User Experience System is a step forward to mobilise public institutions towards a human-centred approach in public services. However, even if provides common written guidelines and instances where agencies can learn from each other’s experiences, it may also incentivise agencies to focus on in-house delivery, which could limit co-operation with other agencies for delivering services that require inter-institutional integration and co-ordination (such as life events) as well as deepen institutional siloes. From a user’s perspective, many life events that prompt the use of public services (such as having a baby or purchasing a house) may involve accessing multiple services provided by different public agencies. This can result in unnecessary or repetitive interactions that may be a major cause of dissatisfaction. Chile could consider strengthening the governance for public services by establishing a common strategy for service improvement and dedicated incentives and mechanisms to enable horizontal integration and collaboration across public sector agencies in the delivery of services. This could involve improving service delivery related to selected “life events”, a common approach to structuring public services integration in other OECD countries (Box 3.2) and that some services, as ChileAtiende, started exploring.
Ireland
The Life Events service aims to fulfil the Government's commitment to the Better Public Services – Public Service Transformation Strategy, ensuring inclusive, high-quality, integrated public services and a seamless user experience. The Life Events Programme adopts a whole-of-government approach, fostering collaboration between departments and agencies to make services more proactive and integrated for citizens. The programme maintains, and builds on, Ireland’s robust enablers for digital and user-centric government services. This includes implementing the "Once Only" principle to not request user information already held by public entities, as well as the development of the Digital Identity Wallet leveraging the digital identity system MyGovID.
Norway
The “One Digital Public Sector Strategy” frames Norway’s digital government goals for the period 2019-2025. Norway has set the provision of seamless user-centric public services as one of the key objectives to fulfil in this period. For this purpose, the strategy prioritises seven key life events, including births, deaths, and job transitions, but also supports other service developments. For the implementation of the life events approach, collaboration across government sectors and agencies is essential, putting in place further actions to support data sharing and use universal design and plain language as key elements for an inclusive approach.
When comparing levels of satisfaction with administrative services across population groups in Chile, all subgroups exhibit lower levels of satisfaction in comparison to subgroups across OECD countries. The largest gaps are found between groups with different income levels, those who do and do not have financial concerns, and those who identify themselves as being part of a group that is discriminated against (Figure 3.5). These differences can potentially be explained by the fact that vulnerabilities usually overlap (OECD, 2022[6]) and that Chile lacks a system-wide approach to promote inclusion and equal treatment in service delivery, as well as integration between service providers.
Share of population that declared being satisfied with the quality of public administrative services access by level of respondents’ socio-economic status and demographics, in Chile and OECD average 2023
Note: The figure presents the within-country distributions and the unweighted averages across OECD countries of responses among recent users to the question “On a scale of 0 to 10, how satisfied are you with the quality of administrative services in Chile (for example applying for an ID, registering a birth or applying for benefits)?” by respondents’ demographic characteristics (age, gender), socio-economic background (education, income, financial concerns, identification as part of a discriminated group, economic mobility), and concerns about crime. Shown here is the proportion of respondents who respond that it is ‘likely’ (responses 6-10 on a 0-10 scale). Financial concerns are measured by asking ‘’In general, thinking about the next year or two, how concerned are you about your household's finances and overall social and economic well-being?’’ and aggregating responses 3 (somewhat concerned) and 4 (very concerned). Concerns about crime are measured by asking “How often, if at all, do you worry about becoming a victim of a violent crime in [Country]?” and aggregating responses 1 (Always) and 2 (Occasionally). Economic mobility is measured by asking “Thinking about your current economic situation and future prospects, do you think you will do better, worse or about the same as your parents have?” and aggregating responses 1 (I think I will do much better than my parents) and 2 (I think I will do a little better than my parents). Low education is defined as below upper secondary educational attainment (including low and middle levels of education) and high education as tertiary education, following the ISCED 2011 classification. Income is defined as the bottom 20%, middle 60% and top 20% of the household net income in Chile. Recent users replied in the affirmative to the question “In the last 12 months, have you personally made use of an administrative service in Chile (for example, applying for a passport, registering a birth, or applying for benefits etc.)?”. All variables depicted are statistically significant at *** p<0.01 except gender which is statistically significant at ** p<0.05. Reference group for age is "18-29”, for gender: "Women”, for education: "Low/medium”, for income: "Bottom 20%”, for financial concerns: "High concerns”, for identifies with a discriminated group: "Feel discriminated”, for worry about crime: "Worried”, for economic mobility: ”Worse than parents”.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
Current government-wide efforts to improve service quality lack specific mechanisms to improve satisfaction among vulnerable or underserved groups. Despite Chile’s positive digital connectivity and access to Internet indicators (OECD, 2024[14]), users may prefer to access services through physical channels as a way to better communicate their needs and have access to assistance while trying to solve a need (DESUC, 2017[15]), Similarly, Chile is undertaking a major reform to digitalise internal administrative procedures through the implementation of the Digital Transformation Law 21.180 (República de Chile, 2019[16]), but in line to what underscored by experts interviewed in occasion of this study fewer interactions and face-to-face engagement could be one of the factors explaining lower levels of satisfaction with services. Chile could consider advancing an omni-channel service delivery approach, that favours a consistent user experience across physical and online channels, in line with the developments through ChileAtiende. This could be complemented by the incorporation of specific targets or actions that promote closer attention to vulnerable groups in the development and implementation of their institutional improvement plans as part of the Quality Service and User Experience System. For example, specifically assessing service delivery for users in vulnerable situations, as is done in Norway or through activities to promote the involvement of and support the most vulnerable population groups in the design and delivery of government services, as those implemented in Denmark (Box 3.3).
Denmark's agenda on digital government and improved public services focuses on accessibility for all, addressing challenges like disabilities and digital skill gaps. The Danish Agency for Digital Government implements the Digital Inclusion plan which aims to create user-friendly digital services through four main areas:
Digital Inclusion: Ensuring all citizens can access public services, regardless of digital skills, by supporting residents, their families, and support personnel. Two networks facilitate this: the Network for Digital Inclusion and the Government Network for Digital Inclusion.
Web Accessibility: Implementing the European Web Accessibility Act to ensure all residents can use public websites and apps, monitoring compliance with the Web Accessibility Directive.
Life Event Guides: Providing coherent digital user journeys for specific life situations through the National Citizen Portal and improving related communication and legislation using service design and agile methods.
User Panel and User Research Space: Engaging residents to contribute to digital government improvements through surveys, interviews, and user testing. This involvement supports the development of user-centred digital solutions. Besides, an important focus is given to study the users that are not having access to services through specific channels, providing a better understanding of what challenges they are facing.
Additionally, the joint design system and user test requirements help public authorities create user-friendly and accessible solutions across the sector. Danish efforts aim to improve and develop inclusive digital services that meet the needs of all users, ensuring a cohesive and accessible digital public sector.
While Chileans are generally satisfied with the availability and clarity of information on government services the speed of access remains an issue
To gain further insight on priority areas for improving public service, the OECD Trust Survey also gathers assessments of several features of public services that affect people’s perception of quality, opportunity and equal treatment when accessing services.
A majority of Chileans are satisfied with each one of the assessed aspects, although satisfaction levels with these attributes are comparatively lower than OECD averages (Figure 3.6). The largest gaps compared to OECD averages are in the clarity of language and information, as well as in the competence and courtesy of public employees.
Share of population that indicate satisfaction with specific attributes of service delivery
Note: The figure presents the within-country distributions by subgroups of responses to the question “Think about the last time you dealt with public institutions, how satisfied were you with each of the following aspects? [OPTION]". “Chile” and “OECD Average” variables are the aggregation of responses from 6-10 on the scale. “OECD Average” presents the unweighted average of responses across countries.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
Similar to trends across OECD countries, many Chileans are not satisfied with the speed with which they can obtain services, and their ability to access the service in the way they want. Notably, a much higher proportion of Chileans reported recent experience with administrative services (74%) than did OECD peers (53%). This suggests, in line with other studies (Comisión Nacional de la Productividad, 2020[13]), that Chileans face higher quantity or complexity of administrative tasks compared to their peers in other OECD countries. Furthermore, administrative procedures are shaped by a legalistic approach (ruled by Law No. 19.880), which encourages service design and delivery focused on fulfilling governmental legal and organisational requirements rather than a human-centred approach that prioritises understanding and meeting users’ needs through service delivery (OECD, 2020[17]; OECD/CAF, 2023[18]). The implementation of the Digital Transformation Law may contribute to address some of these issues through the digitalisation of administrative procedures, improving the ease and speed in obtaining a service. Considering the results of the OECD Trust Survey in Chile, it would be important to address the implementation of this law adopting a human-centric approach to rethink and streamline administrative procedures informed by user needs and solving their end problems, so these efforts contribute to closing rather than deepening the existing trust gap in public institutions in Chile.
Results from the OECD Trust Survey in Chile, close to those across OECD countries, find that increasing satisfaction with the ease of using digital services and the degree to which services meet people’s needs are likely to be the most impactful levers for increasing satisfaction with the overall quality of administrative services: individuals who are satisfied with these service components are 15 and 12 percentage points more likely, respectively, to rate overall administrative service quality positively compared to otherwise similar individuals who were not satisfied with these aspects of their experience (Figure 3.7). In this regard, Chile could improve its efforts to secure the underlying transformation of administrative services based on users and their needs (OECD, 2020[17]).
Percentage point change in likelihood of being satisfied with administrative services following an increase in satisfaction with any of the service aspects (left Y-axis, represented by bar) and share of satisfied with service aspect (right Y-axis, represented by dots) in Chile, 2023
Note: On the right Y-axis and represented by dots, the figure presents the share of respondents in Chile who indicated satisfaction with the respective aspect when answering the question: “Thinking about the most recent administrative service that you personally made use of, how satisfied were you with each of the following? Please give your answer on a scale of 0 to 10, where 0 means you are not at all satisfied, and 10 means you are completely satisfied”. The satisfied proportion is the aggregation of responses from 6-10 on the scale. ‘Don’t know’ and ‘not applicable’ were separate answer options. The percentage point change in satisfaction with administrative services, on the Y-left axis represented by bars, corresponds to the average marginal effect of being satisfied as compared to not being satisfied with any of the eight service aspects, when all the other service aspects, age, gender, and education levels are kept constant. The average marginal effects are statistically significant at p<0.01.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
Courtesy and competence of front-line government servants are the two attributes with the lowest satisfaction among respondents in Chile. This result is connected to the low levels of trust in both national and regional civil services in the country (Figure 2.7 in Chapter 2). Specifically, 58% of Chileans indicate satisfaction with the courtesy and competence of public officials (13 and 15 percentage points below their OECD peers, respectively). Evidence from interviews conducted for this study suggest these results may be explained by the limited training and capacity-building available for public officials. There is no cross-government competency framework or dedicated training or job profile description covering front-line service delivery in Chile (with the exception of public sector institutions with high demand for transactional services, such as ChileAtiende, the Civil Registry and Identification Service and the Tax Revenue Service. Developing public officials’ skills is critical to improve the experience of users with in-person public services.
Chile could develop targeted training for front-line servants building on existing initiatives and other OECD countries’ experiences (Box 3.4). One example is to leverage Alma, service quality training provided by ChileAtiende.2 This could be combined (or conducted through) existing training programmes in the Chilean public sector. such as those provided by the Civil Service, the Comptroller General (Contraloría General de la República) across different levels of the administration through the State Management Studies Centre3 (Centro de Estudios de la Administración del Estado, CEA), or the Undersecretariat for Regional Development (Subsecretaría de Desarrollo Regional, SUBDERE) initiative Academia SUBDERE for training across regional and local governments. Furthermore, fostering horizontal mobility and transfer of skills would be beneficial to spread best practices.
Canada
The Canada School of Public Service (CSPS) offers a comprehensive training programme for civil servants, focusing on enhancing their skills in delivering in-person public services. The training emphasises service excellence, effective communication, and cultural competency. It includes modules on customer service, managing public interactions, and understanding diverse community needs. Additionally, CSPS provides leadership and professional development courses aimed at equipping civil servants with the necessary tools to improve service delivery and meet the evolving expectations of the public.
France
The Interministerial Directorate for Public Transformation (Direction interministérielle de la transformation publique, DITP) provides training to government officials involved in the design and delivery of government services. It comprises a wide range of virtual and in-person training, and for those providing front-line service delivery the DITP offers training on conflict management, customer service, clear language and communication, user research, facilitation of citizen participation and dialogues, and improving services based on user satisfaction and feedback.
Easily available and clear information on public services is also essential for users in their relationship with the public sector, so they can understand the requirements, steps and time needed to access a specific service. In this regard, ChileAtiende, a multi-channel public service delivery network, ensures that information on procedures and requirements to access most public services is available across public service providers’ websites, in-person spots and via a call-centre in Chile. However, ChileAtiende prioritises informational services mostly related to social security, reducing its potential scope and relevance within Chile’s public service delivery agenda. On the aspect of availability of information on administrative services, Chileans are relatively satisfied, with nearly two thirds (65%) reporting that information on administrative services is easily available, only slightly below the OECD average (Figure 3.8).
Share of population reporting different levels of perceived likelihood that information on an administrative service would be easily available if needed, 2023
Note: The figure presents the within-country distributions of responses to the question “If you needed information about an administrative service (for example obtaining a passport, registering a birth, applying for benefits, etc.), how likely do you think it is that clear information would be easily available?” The “likely” proportion is the aggregation of responses from 6-10 on the scale; “neutral” is equal to a response of 5; “unlikely” is the aggregation of responses from 1-4; and “don’t know” was a separate answer choice. “OECD” presents the unweighted average of responses across countries.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
However, besides ChileAtiende information on other services is typically made available by service providers through their institutional service delivery channels and there is no single location for the public to access information about public services. Partly as a result of this, users are not able to complete a service or life event from an end-to-end perspective through a single channel. Many OECD countries, such as Denmark or Portugal, have a joined-up approach to service delivery that provides a single entry-point for users when accessing government services (Box 3.5). Chile could enhance users experience and improve trust by setting up a single source of information and adopting a more joined-up approach to service delivery.
Denmark
Launched in 2007, Borger.dk is Denmark's National Citizen Portal, aimed at providing easy online access to public sector information and digital services. Developed and managed by the Agency for Digital Government, the portal features around 800 pages of content in Danish, covering various public sector topics like administrative procedures, rights, and responsibilities. The information is maintained by editors and relevant public authorities to ensure accuracy and relevance.
Borger.dk also offers about 2,000 online self-services, allowing residents to handle tasks such as enrolling children in daycare, reporting address changes, applying for benefits, and completing tax returns. These services are accessible any time of the day, facilitating self-service for all residents.
The portal has undergone continuous development, with significant updates aimed at improving usability. In 2018, the "My Overview" feature was introduced, allowing users to view personal information held by public authorities, including details on taxes, pensions, health, and housing.
Portugal
Portugal's government has been pioneering in embracing an omnichannel service delivery strategy, aiming to offer seamless, integrated services to its citizens and businesses across multiple channels. This strategy is part of a broader digital transformation effort to enhance the efficiency, accessibility, and user-friendliness of public services, and it builds on the integration of services across different platforms and ensuring interoperability among different government departments.
Within Portugal’s omnichannel approach, ePortugal is the central digital platform that integrates services and information from various government departments. It allows users to access a wide range of services online, from renewing ID documents to accessing social security benefits and health services.
As part of the inclusive approach in Portugal to public services, the digital channel is part of an integrated network that includes citizen shops (Lojas do Cidadão), in-person delivery offices where citizens can access a variety of public services in a single location, reducing the need to visit multiple offices for different services, saving time and improving the overall experience. A similar experience is offered in more rural areas through the citizen spots (Espaços Cidadão), which provide access to a selection of the most demanded public services.
3.1.2. Many Chileans believe the government is responsive to their feedback, but they could have a more significant role in service improvement
Users could have a pivotal role in the design and delivery of public services in Chile
Results from the OECD Trust Survey indicate that around four in ten (40%) Chileans are confident that the government would improve public services based on user feedback. This share is slightly above the OECD average (Figure 3.9).
Share of population that indicate confidence in the improvement of public services after a complaint
Note: The figure presents the within-country distributions of responses to the question "If a lot of people complained about a poorly performing public service, how likely is it, in your view, that the service would be improved?". The “likely” proportion is the aggregation of responses from 6-10 on the scale; “neutral” is equal to a response of 5; “unlikely” is the aggregation of responses from 1-4; and “don’t know” was a separate answer choice. “OECD” presents the unweighted average of responses across countries.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
Chile has a strong commitment to orienting public services to users and their needs, but this ambition needs to be operationalised in concrete practice and impact, via more robust government competences (OECD, 2020[17]; OECD, 2024[19]; OECD, 2024[20]). The incorporation of user feedback (such as the results of MESU or complaints received at the Offices of Information, Complaints and Suggestions, OIRS) to inform service design and delivery is not yet a common practice and dedicated roles for service design are generally absent across public sector institutions, with the Government Lab (Laboratorio de Gobierno, LabGob), a special unit in the Ministry of Finance, fulfilling this function for selected priority service transformation efforts as well as by convening service design enthusiasts (OECD, 2020[17]).
Chile could leverage the Service Quality and User Experience System to incorporate service design roles and functions at institutional level (Box 3.6), as well as advacing horizontal collaboration and data interoperability to help break down institutional siloes (see next section). Furthermore, the experience of human-centred public institutions could be leveraged in a more effective way for those agencies that require a stronger service design, learning from the best practices across the Chilean public sector. Relevant examples are the working groups for digital services and service delivery, led by the Ministry of Finance through the Digital Government Secretariat, the Modernisation Secretariat and the LabGob, and which bring service delivery practitioners to advance in the development of common tools to support user-centric administratives services. Looking ahead, it would be important that the outputs and outcomes of these groups and the experience of more user-centric public institutions in Chile reach the long-tail of less equipped service providers so they can learn from and adhere to best practices within the Chilean administration, sharing common challenges and solutions across the public sector as well as enhancing the needed multisectoral collaboration to transit towards joined-up service delivery.
Additionally, the results of the OECD Trust Survey in Chile indicate that the ongoing implementation of key initiatives to improve public services in Chile, such as the Service Quality and User Experience System or the Digital Transformation Law 21.180, happens in a context of low trust in public institutions. This represents an opportunity for Chile to advance in the transformation of public services with a human-centric perspective, including enhancing both the physical and the digital experience of Chileans with public services, to help close the existing trust gap. The risk of not understanding and meeting user needs in the implementation of these initiatives risks that they may replicate existing structural issues in service delivery and deepen satisfaction and trust gaps e.g. regarding the ease and speed of obtaining a service, and the ability to obtain the service users need (Figure 3.6).
In the United Kingdom, the Cabinet Office has set the Government Digital and Data Profession Capability Framework to establish the specific set of roles, functions, and syllabus to support the attraction, development and retainment of digital and data professionals in the public sector.
In line with the development of the Government Digital Service and the central role given to better understanding users and their needs, the Framework acknowledges the importance of having dedicated professionals with expertise in service design. The Framework includes different service design role levels and the respective expected competencies and responsibilities, ranging from associate service designer to head of service design positions.
Enhanced access, sharing and legitimate use of data is needed to deliver human-centred services and advance evidence-based policymaking
The sharing and use of data in the public sector is a key enabler for joined-up and omni-channel public service delivery. Further, as governments become data-driven, governing and using data under trusted and ethical principles is essential to strengthen trust in public institutions (OECD, 2019[21]). According to the OECD Trust Survey, 41% of people in Chile believe the government would use their personal data only for legitimate purposes, a share significantly below the OECD average (52%), while in line with the results of OECD LAC countries (Figure 3.10).
Share of population who find it likely or unlikely that a public agency would use their personal data for legitimate purposes only, 2023
Note: The figure presents the within-country distributions of responses to the question “If you shared your personal data with a public agency/office/department, how likely do you think it is that it would be used for legitimate purposes only?”. The “likely” proportion is the aggregation of responses from 6-10 on the scale; “neutral” is equal to a response of 5; “unlikely” is the aggregation of responses from 0-4; and “Don't know” was a separate answer choice. “OECD” presents the unweighted average of responses across countries.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
The results may be explained by the fact that Chile does not have a comprehensive approach to govern, share and use data in the public sector, as evidenced in the results of the OECD Digital Government Index (OECD, 2024[19]). Chile has an Integrated Platform for State Electronic Services (Plataforma de Integración de Servicios Electrónicos del Estado, PISEE), but in practice, public sector data interoperability is limited. Public sector institutions only share data for specific purposes and through dedicated data sharing agreements, which are perceived as very difficult to settle. As a result, when accessing government services, users often have to share information that is already in the hands of public agencies. At the same time, Chile has a limited institutional and legal framework for the protection and handling of personal data, which was one of the commitments of Chile for its accession to the OECD. Currently, data protection is only partially covered by Law 19.628 on the protection of private life (República de Chile, 1999[22]).
Considering these results, Chile requires prompt actions to establish a whole-of-government vision and strategy to transit towards a data-driven public sector. This includes an increased convergence and standardisation of existing practices and capacities to advance data governance, access and reuse across multiple public agencies, as well as improving the communication between the public sector and citizens regarding the legitimate use of personal data for service delivery and policymaking. The creation of the Digital Government Secretariat at the Ministry of Finance may contribute to advancing a data-driven public sector approach in Chile (República de Chile, 2024[23]), including the mandate to enhance public sector data governance and sharing, the development of a dedicated data management strategy. Further, a bill of law on personal data protection has been recently approved in the National Congress, which aims to address some of these issues when it enters into force by September 2026 (Senado de la República, 2024[24]; Gobierno de Chile, 2024[25]). This complements recent efforts to strengthen cybersecurity in Chile, including the Cybersecurity Framework Law 21.663 (República de Chile, 2024[26]), to mitigate risks in personal data handling by public and private entities.
Advancing the capacities for a data-driven public sector would also contribute to a more evidence-based approach in policymaking and service design and delivery, enhancing people’s confidence about policy choices (OECD, 2022[3]). Currently, results of the OECD Trust Survey indicate that only 37% of Chileans believe that the government will draw on the best available evidence, research, and statistical data to take decisions, slightly below the OECD average (41%) (Figure 3.11). This perception of the government’s ability to use evidence in decision-making is a key driver of trust in the national government in Chile (see Chapter 2).
Share of population reporting different levels of perceived likelihood that government takes decisions based on evidence, 2023
Note: The figure shows the within-country distributions of responses to the question: “If the national government takes a decision, how likely do you think it is that it will draw on the best available evidence, research, and statistical data?” The “likely” proportion is the aggregation of responses from 6-10 on the scale; “neutral” is equal to a response of 5; “unlikely” is the aggregation of responses from 1-4; and “don't know” was a separate answer choice. “OECD” presents the unweighted average of responses across countries.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
Currently, Chile does not have a whole-of-government approach to evidence-based policymaking and efforts to leverage data and best scientific knowledge are scattered across different institutions. Notably, the National Statistics Institute (Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas, INE) and the Ministry of Social Development (Ministerio de Desarrollo Social, MDS) are two examples of public agencies with a strong focus on gathering and using data to inform policy choices, including working collaboratively with each other and with other stakeholders to share and reuse administrative data. Other efforts include the Unified Permit System (Sistema Unificado de Permisos, SUPER) developed by the Ministry of Economy to centralise the processing of sectorial permits for investment initiatives; and the project on tax foresight developed by the customs and tax ecosystem within the Ministry of Finance, with the support of the State Modernisation Secretariat.
Chile aims to address the limited system-wide approach to evidence-based policymaking through the creation of a dedicated agency to oversee the quality of public policy, currently under discussion at the Congress (Cámara de Diputados y Diputadas, 2024[27]). The agency will have the role to oversee, promote and evaluate the effectiveness, efficiency and co-ordination of public policies, regulations, plans and programmes. Besides, it will lead Chile's methodological approach for evaluation mechanisms in the public sector (including those on the formulation and evaluation of the national budget), including qualitative assessments to inform policy decision-making. This represents a key opportunity to improve communication efforts towards the public on the underlying evidence, reasoning and justification for the implementation of public policies. Communication efforts of Colombia’s National Performance Management Evaluation System (SINERGIA) could serve as a good example (Box 3.7). Additionally, the agency’s creation represents a key opportunity as Chile could embed in this agency a data-driven decision-making approach, leveraging the experience of other OECD countries such as Estonia, with the creation of a standardised methodology (Box 3.8).
The National System for Evaluation of Management and Results (Sistema Nacional de Evaluación de Gestión y Resultados, SINERGIA) is a Colombian initiative led by the Department of National Planning (DNP) that focuses on evaluating and tracking the performance of public policies and development plans. It aims to improving transparency and accountability in government operations with a strong focus on public communications to support effective public policy implementation and promote long-term sustainable development.
SINERGIA supports data-driven decision-making and communication in policymaking through tools like evidence gap maps and continuous monitoring of key programmes, including the National Development Plan and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Source: https://sinergia.dnp.gov.co/
Estonia is implementing a framework to leverage its data-driven public sector maturity when making evidence-based policy making. The Government Data-Driven Decision-Making Framework (DDDM) aims to integrate all relevant data sources and administrative records across different government authorities in order to have the most accurate information when policies are to be designed. This effort shifts from a reactive approach in which data sources are discovered and integrated for specific needs. Instead, the renewed DDDM model aims to make data sources findable and integrated by design and before the need for information arises, thus improving the effectiveness and efficiency of policy making.
Lessons in the implementation of the project include securing top political leadership and co-ordination among relevant stakeholders for the implementation of the framework, elevating the role of data governance and sharing within the public sector, and advancing data skills and stewardship roles in the Estonian government for decision-makers to use integrated and quality data.
Chile could consider building on good examples of collaboration between the public sector and the scientific community to leverage academic research in public policy, establishing them as formal and regular mechanisms. For instance, the Ministry of Health partnered with national universities during the COVID-19 pandemic to forecast needs, reinforce capacities and temporarily integrate the public and private healthcare systems (Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, 2024[28]). This initiative is supported by the existence of 54 publicly funded multidisciplinary excellence research centres which aim to bridge scientific knowledge in decision-making on priority areas (Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología, Conocimiento e Innovación, 2024[29]). Another example is the Social Information Registry (Registro de Información Social, RIS) made available by the Ministry of Social Development to enable public sector institutions to inform their evidence-based policymaking leveraging social development data and research.4
The role of public innovation to improve public services can be strengthened and expanded
Embracing public sector innovation is a key factor supporting the transformation of government processes and services. As such, Chile has increasingly given a prominent role to innovation in government processes and services in public policy, through the creation of the LabGob (OECD, 2017[30]) and its work on initiatives such as the redesign of the structure and formatting of tax reports.
Results of the OECD Trust Survey show that 39% of Chileans believe the government would adopt innovative ideas to improve government services, a share equal to the OECD average (39%) (Figure 3.12).
Share of population reporting different levels of perceived likelihood that government adopts innovative ideas to improve public services, 2023
Note: The figure shows the within-country distributions of responses to the question: “If there was an innovative idea that would improve the delivery of a service, how likely do you think it would be to be adopted by the responsible public institution?” The “likely” proportion is the aggregation of responses from 6-10 on the scale; “neutral” is equal to a response of 5; “unlikely” is the aggregation of responses from 1-4; and “don’t know” was a separate answer choice. “OECD” presents the unweighted average of responses across countries.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
Yet, while the work of the LabGob has been relevant to advance innovation in the public sector, further efforts could be made to institutionalise public innovation in government agencies through dedicated roles. Further, in line with previous recommendations, it would be important to ensure that civil service reforms include horizontal mobility of civil servants and formal collaboration between public institutions. This can leverage the experience of initiatives such as Red de Innovadores Públicos, an exchange network that brings together government innovation practitioners and enthusiasts; as well as the project Colabora, a pilot initiative by the Civil Service and the State Modernisation Secretariat to promote horizontal mobility within the public sector.5 This would promote a culture of innovation and cooperation across the public administration, as pursued by many OECD countries (Box 3.9).
Canada introduced the Free Agent Pilot in 2016 targeting public servants with innovative problem-solving skills to offer them the freedom to choose project-based opportunities across the public service, aligning work with their skills and interests.
The pilot aimed to 1) showcase the benefits of a cloud-based free agency model; 2) support and retain talented public servants; and 3) enhance the public service’s capacity for innovation and problem-solving. It tracks various metrics to evaluate the model’s viability.
Participants, or "Free Agents," reported higher job satisfaction, more support for innovation, and better opportunities for skill application and development compared to traditional roles. The programme addresses their frustrations with under-use, under-promotion, and the overall public service culture. Managers also benefit, citing the speed and convenience of hiring Free Agents, who positively impact team capacity and work environment.
3.1.3. Opportunities to strengthen government responsiveness and build trust
Results from the OECD Trust Survey show perceptions of government responsiveness in Chile are slightly above averages across OECD countries. However, Chileans are less satisfied with public services than their OECD peers, and there are significant differences in levels of satisfaction across population groups. Policy actions to improve government responsiveness and strengthen public trust include the following:
Establish a common vision and strategy for public administrative services that promotes an omni-channel and human-centred approach to design and deliver services and incentivises collaboration and integration across public service providers.
Enhance the Quality Service and User Experience System with specific targets or actions that promote closer attention to vulnerable groups when improving public services.
Implement dedicated service delivery training for front-line civil servants, in particular to improve the interaction and experience of users when accessing services across different channels.
Incorporate service design roles and capabilities in public sector institutions to systematise user research within the government and as a measure to support the implementation of the Quality Service and User Experience System.
Mainstream public sector innovation across government institutions through specific and dedicated roles.
Establish horizontal collaboration actions between public sector institutions, including the implementation of life events, the horizontal mobility of civil servants and effective mechanisms for sharing best practices and common challenges in service design and delivery.
Develop a data governance framework in the public sector with specific roles and institutional arrangements for the implementation of actions for effective sharing and use of data for policymaking and service delivery in trusted and legitimate ways.
Implement a communication strategy to transmit government actions to protect and legitimately use personal data in policymaking and service delivery and standardised frameworks for data-driven decision-making in public policy.
Establish formal mechanisms to leverage scientific knowledge into policy decision-making.
The second component of government competence in the OECD Framework on Drivers of Trust in Public Institutions is reliability, which refers to horizontal competencies that underpin public sector institutions to balance medium and long-term needs. The OECD Trust Survey includes questions to measure people’s perceptions of government’s capacity to anticipate needs, protect the public in an uncertain policy environment, and tackle large-scale emergency and complex policy issues with global and long-term impacts.
In addition, reliability and tackling long-term challenges requires building broad consensus and political commitment beyond specific governments, which is increasingly challenging in a global and national context of high political polarisation, and fragmentation of veto players. As such, the implementation of the survey in Chile includes an additional question to assess the extent to which the government is perceived as articulating relevant national priorities and policies with other stakeholders.
Overall, perceptions of government reliability in Chile are lower than those observed across OECD countries. However, Chileans are more optimistic than their OECD peers about their government's ability to tackle complex long-term challenges, such as climate change. Ensuring that these challenges are addressed in co-ordination with different stakeholders is key, as perception of the government’s ability to collaborate with other stakeholders to tackle long-term challenges is the most significant driver of trust in the national government and the national civil service (see Chapter 2).
3.2.1. Perceptions of government preparedness to address emergencies and protect people's lives are less favourable in Chile than across the OECD
Building trust in government’s emergency preparedness is crucial in Chile. The country is highly exposed to earthquakes and tsunamis, as well as other natural events, such as wildfires and floodings. Chile’s natural conditions put added pressure on public institutions to be fit-for-purpose so they can deliver in an adapted and timely manner during and after a crisis. Yet, according to the OECD Trust Survey, less than half of Chileans (47%) believe government institutions would be ready to protect people’s lives in case of a large-scale emergency, six percentage points below the OECD average (53%) (Figure 3.13).
Share of population reporting different levels of confidence in the emergency preparedness of institutions, 2023
Note: The figure presents the within-country distributions of responses to the question “If there was a large-scale emergency, how likely do you think it is that government institutions would be ready to protect people’s lives?”. The “likely” proportion is the aggregation of responses from 6-10 on the scale; “neutral” is equal to a response of 5; “unlikely” is the aggregation of responses from 0-4; and “Don't know” was a separate answer choice. “OECD” presents the unweighted average of responses across countries.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
Besides, and notably, perceptions of government’s preparedness for a crisis are particularly lower for more vulnerable population groups (Figure 3.14). The results may be explained by the impact of such disasters on lower income population, as observed historically in urban wildfires and floodings (RFI, 2014[31]; Villagra and Paula, 2021[32]; OECD, 2024[33]) and even after the implementation of the Trust Survey in the wildfires affecting urban areas of Valparaíso and Viña del Mar in February 2024. Further, population groups in vulnerable situations rely on government benefits and assistance during a crisis. As a result, close co-ordination with local and regional governments is essential, in a context where sub-national governments are those closer to meet the needs of those affected.
Share of population that declared confidence that government institutions would be ready to protect people’s life by level of respondents’ socio-economic status and demographics, in Chile and OECD average 2023
Note: The figure presents the within-country distributions and the unweighted averages across OECD countries of responses to the question “If there was a large-scale emergency, how likely do you think it is that government institutions would be ready to protect people’s lives?” by respondents’ demographic characteristics (age, gender), socio-economic background (education, financial concerns, identification as part of a discriminated group, economic mobility), and concerns about crime. Shown here is the proportion of respondents who respond that it is ‘likely’ (responses 6-10 on a 0-10 scale). Financial concerns are measured by asking ‘’In general, thinking about the next year or two, how concerned are you about your household's finances and overall social and economic well-being?’’ and aggregating responses 3 (somewhat concerned) and 4 (very concerned). Concerns about crime are measured by asking “How often, if at all, do you worry about becoming a victim of a violent crime in [Country]?” and aggregating responses 1 (Always) and 2 (Occasionally). Economic mobility is measured by asking “Thinking about your current economic situation and future prospects, do you think you will do better, worse or about the same as your parents have?” and aggregating responses 1 (I think I will do much better than my parents) and 2 (I think I will do a little better than my parents). Low education is defined as below upper secondary educational attainment (including low and middle levels of education) and high education as tertiary education, following the ISCED 2011 classification. All variables depicted are statistically significant at *** p<0.01 except age (30-49 are statistically significant at ** p<0.05 and 50+ are not statistically significant), gender and education which are statistically significant at ** p<0.05. * p<0.1; ** p<0.05; *** 0.01. Reference group for age is "18-29”, for gender: "Women”, for education: "Low/medium”, for financial concerns: "High concerns”, for identifies with a discriminated group: "Feel discriminated”, for worry about crime: "Worried”, for economic mobility: ”Worse than parents”.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
Chile’s policies to deal with events such as earthquakes, tsunamis or global pandemics are known for their comprehensiveness and are built upon the experience of previous events (De La Llera et al., 2015[34]). This includes strengthened prevention systems, as well as an institutional learning process that has resulted in robust construction regulations and effective communication systems. These experiences were taken into account in a recent reform of the institutional arrangements for emergency management in Chile. This includes the enactment of Law 21.364 that establishes the National System for Disaster Prevention and Response and replaces the National Emergency Office (ONEMI) by the Chilean National Disaster Prevention and Response Service (Servicio Nacional de Prevención y Respuesta ante Desastres, SENAPRED) (República de Chile, 2021[35]). The law creates a new integrated system focused on the prevention, early alert and territorial management in emergency management, including a National Emergency Policy that must be updated every five years. In the case of the COVID-19 pandemic, Chile managed to leverage its robust and renowned public vaccination system to rapidly immunise the population and slow down the spread of the virus at national level (Box 3.10).
Chile’s rapid and successful COVID-19 vaccine rollout is attributed to several key factors. The government and academia played a significant role in securing vaccines through a pragmatic approach that included negotiations and agreements with different laboratories simultaneously to secure a timely supply of vaccines.
This effort was supported by strong local capacity and co-ordination between the health system and local authorities. Additionally, Chile’s long-standing National Immunisation Programme fostered a favourable vaccination culture that helped contain the spread of mis- and dis-information on both COVID-19 virus and vaccines; as well as served as a backbone for the rapid vaccine rollout at national level. The positive results can be therefore attributed to a combination of short-term actions—such as pandemic-specific strategies—and long-term elements, including infrastructure investment and stakeholder relationships.
However, other events, such as wildfires and floodings, have not observed a similar learning process and tend to impact dense areas in which urban planning is still deficient (OECD, 2024[33]). Evidence from the fact-finding mission underscores that while all stakeholders are willing to collaborate during emergencies, there is limited co-ordination between relevant central/regional/local authorities and the absence of strong co-ordination and planning mechanisms is perceived as a key restriction for a rapid and concerted emergency response (La Tercera, 2024[37]). Such institutional feedback becomes particularly relevant to improve planning in emergency management in order to better anticipate and be prepared for future events, in particular given the impact of climate change on both the recurrency and intensity of such events. There is a need to reinforce institutional capacities by developing plans and strengthen the co-ordination among relevant stakeholders, and to communicate them adequately so people can obtain real time information and official updates that support a timely response. Sweden and Australia provide relevant examples on how other OECD countries are planning in advance as well as communicating in timely and effective ways during a crisis (Box 3.11).
Sweden
Sweden is exploring the adoption of anticipatory governance in crisis management through the OECD initiative "Rehearsing the Future" based on the "Forward Looking Cell" exercise. This innovative concept, tested with the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency and insights from the Danish Emergency Management Agency, focuses on improving crisis preparedness by envisioning and rehearsing potential future scenarios. The exercise, part of an 18-month project, aims to integrate strategic foresight into civil preparedness, enhance decision-making, and foster resilience. It highlights the importance of collaboration, dynamic capabilities, and embedding foresight into governance practices for effective crisis management.
Australia
Australia's communication policy during the bushfires of 2019-2020 demonstrated several key best practices aimed at ensuring public safety and maintaining trust. The government used a multi-channel approach to disseminate information, leveraging traditional media, social media, and dedicated apps like "Fires Near Me" for real-time updates. These platforms provided critical information on fire locations, evacuation routes, and safety advice.
Coordination between federal, state, and local agencies ensured consistent messaging, preventing confusion. Regular press briefings, led by government officials and emergency services, kept the public informed about the evolving situation. Community meetings and direct engagement with affected residents were also prioritised to address concerns and provide support.
The policy emphasised transparency, with frequent updates on the status of the fires and ongoing efforts to control them. Emergency alerts were sent via the Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) system to notify people in affected areas instantly.
Public education campaigns prior to and during the bushfires highlighted the importance of preparedness, ensuring that residents knew how to respond in an emergency. These comprehensive communication strategies were crucial in managing the crisis effectively, helping to save lives and property.
3.2.2. Chileans are more confident than OECD peers of their government capacity to tackle climate change
Chile is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to its unique geographic conditions and fragile ecosystems (OECD, 2022[38]). With a coastline stretching over 6 400 km, vast arid areas, forests, and ice caps, the country is highly susceptible to the effects of global warming. In recent years, the frequency and severity of natural disasters such as fires and droughts have increased, largely driven by human activities. One significant consequence of climate change in Chile is the prolonged 13-year drought, which triggered the development of contingency plans for water rationing in 2022 in a country wherein the water sector is privatised (Baer, 2017[39]). Perhaps unsurprisingly, 74% of respondents to the OECD Trust Survey in Chile, above the average across the OECD (69%), consider that the climate crisis should be placed very high in government priorities (Figure 3.15).
Share of population who think it is important that their country prioritise reducing greenhouse gas emissions, 2023
Note: The figure shows the unweighted OECD average of the share of respondents who indicate the goal is important (responses 6-10 on a 0-10 scale) when answering the question “How important do you think it is that each of the following goals are prioritised in [COUNTRY]?”.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
However, addressing the challenges posed by climate change in Chile requires not only effective policies and measures but also the support and trust of the public. The perceived competence of the national government plays a crucial role in driving public trust, which in turn influences the level of support for climate policies (OECD, 2022[6]). Studies have shown that people's political trust strongly influences their attitudes towards future-oriented policies. Individuals who have confidence in the effectiveness of policies and are willing to make sacrifices for the benefit of future generations are more likely to support climate action (Fairbrother et al., 2021[40]).
In this context, almost half of the respondents (48%) to the OECD Trust Survey in Chile are confident in the government’s ability to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and slow down the impact of climate change, above the average across OECD countries (42%) (Figure 3.16). The relatively positive results in this indicator may be explained by the systemic and multistakeholder policy approach taken by Chile across different administrations to mitigate the impact of climate change. These structural measures include strengthened institutional and governance arrangements, such as a dedicated Ministry of Environment and the Framework Law on Climate Change (FLCC) in 2022, as well as changes in the energy matrix to progressively include renewable energy sources, national environmental conservation plans and an increased adoption of electric public transport at the national level (OECD, 2024[33]). As indicated by interviewees during the fact-finding mission, citizens perceive that progress has been achieved by government due to cross-partisan and sectorial collaboration. This effort aligns with Chile’s tradition of consensus in addressing large-scale policy priorities.
Share of population reporting different levels confidence that country succeeds in reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the next ten years, 2023
Note: The figure presents the within-country distributions of responses to the question “On a scale of 0 to 10, how confident are you that [COUNTRY] will succeed in reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the next ten years?”. The “likely” proportion is the aggregation of responses from 6-10 on the scale; “neutral” is equal to a response of 5; “unlikely” is the aggregation of responses from 0-4; and “Don't know” was a separate answer choice. “OECD” presents the unweighted average of responses across countries.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
These results are consistent to those of the additional question included in the survey as implemented in Chile to measure perceptions of collaboration and co-operation between the national government and other stakeholders. 45% of Chileans are confident that the government would co-ordinate with other national stakeholders, such as business and trade unions, to tackle complex and long-term challenges. In fact, government ability to co-operate with other stakeholders is the most significant driver of trust in the national government and civil service (see Chapter 2). In addition, during the fact-finding mission, some aspects were highlighted as conducive to positive views regarding co-operation and coordination in Chile. These include inclusive and continuous dialogue, capacity to compromise, confidence in the implementation of actions, continuity across different administrations, and the adoption of gradual reforms rather than radical policy changes. This can enhance government reliability demonstrating that the national government is able to anticipate issues with a long-term impact and that is able to secure alignment and co-operation to approve complex policy reforms.
Despite general views on government’s ability to address climate change, recent studies note that several challenges remain in the environment agenda and are affecting social cohesion, including significant air pollution in urban areas and “sacrifice” zones, as well as the existing freshwater crisis with an impact in less advantaged and vulnerable zones (OECD, 2024[33]). Indeed, disaggregating results of the OECD Trust Survey by population groups show that older, more educated and socio-economically advantaged population have more positive perceptions (Figure 3.17). Data is consistent with evidence from the fact-finding mission that highlights that while political, economic and intellectual elites perceive advances in the environment agenda, this is not the case among the most affected communities. Looking ahead, Chile would need to accelerate actions to meet environmental goals and reduce gas emissions including larger efforts to include the most vulnerable communities. While the development of regional and local plans to implement the Framework Law on Climate Change are perceived as an asset, they would require an inclusive development and implementation approach to close these existing trust gaps between population groups. Evidence from OECD countries indicates that effective and meaningful stakeholder engagement facilitates allocation reform and supports negotiation measures to balance divergent interests, as observed in the water allocation policies in Israel, Alberta, Canada, England and Wales, New Mexico, the United States and South Africa (OECD, 2024[33]).
Share of respondents that declared being confident that Chile will succeed in reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the next ten years by level of respondents’ socio-economic status and demographics, in Chile and OECD average 2023
Note: The figure presents the within-country distributions and the unweighted averages across OECD countries of responses to the question “On a scale of 0 to 10, how confident are you that [COUNTRY] will succeed in reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the next ten years?” by respondents’ demographic characteristics (age, gender), socio-economic background (education, financial concerns, identification as part of a discriminated group, economic mobility), and concerns about crime. Shown here is the proportion of respondents who respond that is ‘confident’ (responses 6-10 on a 0-10 scale). Financial concerns are measured by asking ‘’In general, thinking about the next year or two, how concerned are you about your household's finances and overall social and economic well-being?’’ and aggregating responses 3 (somewhat concerned) and 4 (very concerned). Concerns about crime are measured by asking “How often, if at all, do you worry about becoming a victim of a violent crime in [Country]?” and aggregating responses 1 (Always) and 2 (Occasionally). Economic mobility is measured by asking “Thinking about your current economic situation and future prospects, do you think you will do better, worse or about the same as your parents have?” and aggregating responses 1 (I think I will do much better than my parents) and 2 (I think I will do a little better than my parents). Low education is defined as below upper secondary educational attainment (including low and middle levels of education) and high education as tertiary education, following the ISCED 2011 classification. All variables depicted are statistically significant at *** p<0.01. Reference group for age is "18-29”, for gender: "Women”, for education: "Low/medium”, for financial concerns: "High concerns”, for identifies with a discriminated group: "Feel discriminated”, for worry about crime: "Worried”, for economic mobility: ”Worse than parents”.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
3.2.3. Four in ten Chileans are confident that the government would effectively address complex challenges
Reliable governments are able to address complex challenges with trade-offs and unknows, such as regulating new technologies and promoting their responsible use or balancing intergenerational needs and interests (OECD, 2022[3]).
Results from the OECD Trust Survey suggest that Chileans, as their OECD peers, express some concerns regarding the government’s preparedness face to new technologies. Four in ten respondents (40%) are confident that the government would regulate new technologies appropriately and that would support people and businesses to use them responsibly (Figure 3.18). The results are similar to those observed across OECD countries, indicative of the higher concern that citizens have about the extent to which governments would be able to effectively balance the opportunities and risks of emerging technologies across the society and public administration. Additionally, when looking at the drivers of trust in Chile’s public institutions, the government’s ability to regulate technology and helping citizens and business to use it responsibly is moderately associated with trust in the national civil service (Chapter 2).
Share of population reporting different levels of confidence in of the government's ability to regulate new technologies appropriately and help businesses and individuals use them responsibly, 2023
Note: The figure presents the within-country distributions of responses to the question “If new technologies (for example artificial intelligence or digital applications) became available, how likely do you think it is that the federal/central/national government will regulate them appropriately and help businesses and citizens use them responsibly?”. The “likely” proportion is the aggregation of responses from 6-10 on the scale; “neutral” is equal to a response of 5; “unlikely” is the aggregation of responses from 0-4; and “Don't know” was a separate answer choice. “OECD” presents the unweighted average of responses across countries.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
Chile is currently adopting a multistakeholder approach on artificial intelligence. The Ministry of Science, Technology, Knowledge, and Innovation (Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología, Conocimiento e Innovación, MCTCI) is responsible for advancing the national policy for emerging technologies, in co-ordination with the Ministry of Economy, the Ministry of Finance, and the Ministry General Secretariat of the Presidency (SEGPRES). This includes the National Policy for Artificial Intelligence (Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología, Conocimiento e Innovación, 2021[41]), which frames Chile’s ambition to become a regional leader in the regulation, adoption and use of artificial intelligence across sectors. The broader involvement of government actors, the private sector, academia and CSOs has brought the consensus and alignment needed for Chile to succeed in its goal to leverage artificial intelligence to benefit all.
To further balance the opportunities and risks of artificial intelligence, Chile is additionally discussing the drafting of a dedicated law for the development and use of artificial intelligence, using as references the recent European Union’s Artificial Intelligence Act (Box 3.12) and the OECD AI principles (European Commission, 2024[42]; OECD, 2019[43]). The drafting and implementation of this law would benefit by adopting an open and participatory approach that brings together different sectors to continue building trust in public institutions and secure alignment for its implementation.
The development of the EU Artificial Intelligence Act was characterised by a collaborative approach involving multiple stakeholders. The European Commission led the initiative, embarking on extensive consultations with a broad range of participants, including industry representatives, academic experts, civil society organisations, and member state authorities. This inclusive process aimed to balance innovation with the necessity to mitigate risks associated with AI technologies.
Public consultations were crucial, allowing stakeholders to provide input on the proposed regulatory framework. These consultations were further enhanced by targeted discussions with key industry players and experts to ensure the legislation would be practical and effective. Additionally, the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union were actively involved, contributing to the drafting and revision processes through their respective committees and working groups.
The collaborative nature of the process also extended to international cooperation, as the EU engaged with global partners and standard-setting bodies to align the act with international norms and best practices. This comprehensive approach ensured that the EU Artificial Intelligence Act was shaped by a diverse set of perspectives, aiming to foster innovation while safeguarding fundamental rights and ensuring public trust in AI systems.
Another relevant factor that may impact levels of trust when addressing complex and global challenges is social cohesiveness and intergenerational fairness, reflecting the capacity of public institutions to deliver for young people (OECD, 2022[44]). According to results of the OECD Trust Survey, 41% of Chileans are confident that the national government balances intergenerational interests and needs (Figure 3.19), four percentage points above the OECD average. In specific, government ability to balance intergenerational interests is highly associated with trust in the national government (Chapter 2). Results in Chile are to be considered in the context of recent events, such as the social protests, the recent election of the youngest President in the history of the country as well as the youngest National Parliament, which may have influenced people’s perceptions about the role of the youth in public life.
Among initiatives that may explain these results, Chile’s public investment system stands out as a mean to protect the well-being and social development of future generations based on the dividends of the copper mining industry. Chile’s public investment portfolio is broad, including the Pension Reserve Fund (PRF), which aims to finance fiscal pension commitments to support those in need; as well as the Economic and Social Stabilization Fund (ESSF), aims to provide funds for covering fiscal shortfalls or repaying public debt (Ministerio de Hacienda, 2024[45]).
Share of population reporting different levels confidence that the national government can adequately balance the interests of current and future generations, 2023
Note: The figure presents the within-country distributions of responses to the question “On a scale of 0 to 10, how confident are you that the national government adequately balances the interests of current and future generations?”. The “likely” proportion is the aggregation of responses from 6-10 on the scale; “neutral” is equal to a response of 5; “unlikely” is the aggregation of responses from 0-4; and “Don't know” was a separate answer choice. “OECD” presents the unweighted average of responses across countries.
Source: OECD Trust Survey 2023.
3.2.4. Opportunities to enhance government reliability and further build trust
Results from the OECD Trust Survey found that perceptions of government reliability in Chile are, slightly lower than those observed in OECD countries. Chileans are less confident than in OECD countries about the government’s preparedness to address large-scale emergencies but are more optimistic than their OECD peers about their government's ability to tackle complex long-term challenges, such as the climate change and intergenerational fairness. In other words, Chileans are more confident about complex policymaking aspects than about day-to-day interactions with governments, for example, on service delivery.
Policy actions to improve government reliability and strengthen public trust include the following:
Strengthen the governance for crisis management to improve the co-ordination across levels of government and to incorporate formal feedback loops for a systematic review and update of government crisis management policies.
Implement strategic foresight actions to improve government capacity to anticipate possible crisis scenarios and take preventive actions.
Improve public communication during large-scale crises to align different stakeholders and the broader community in the implementation and observance of policy actions.
Establish actions to involve more vulnerable groups and affected communities in preparedness, response and resilience, involving regional and local government authorities.
Secure broader consensus and alignment across key stakeholders and sectors for the implementation of ongoing policies and the development of dedicated legal frameworks to regulate use of artificial intelligence, as well as to address more complex long-term challenges, such as climate change.
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← 1. In the questionnaire implemented in Chile, administrative services refer to “trámites” accessed by users and carried out by public institutions, such as requesting an ID, register a newborn or apply to social benefits.
← 2. For more details, see https://ips.gob.cl/noticias/ips-y-su-programa-de-formacion-para-atencion-ciudadana
← 3. For more details see https://www.ceacgr.cl/CEA/que-hacemos.html
← 4. For more details see https://datasocial.ministeriodesarrollosocial.gob.cl/portalDataSocial/risInvestigacion
← 5. For more details, see https://www.serviciocivil.cl/colabora-conectando-personas-en-el-estado/