International Migration Outlook 2024

2. Recent developments in migration policy

Abstract

This chapter provides an overview of the changes in the immigration policies of OECD countries during the period 2023‑24, with a particular focus on major trends and policy changes related to international students and digitalisation of migration processes.

In Brief

Key findings

• Record-high immigration levels in many OECD countries have placed pressure on migration systems. In response to high demand on public reception infrastructure, countries continue to tighten asylum legislation. Some of the main immigration destination countries have begun imposing restrictions on other legal migration pathways to curb net immigration and ease pressure on the housing market and on public services.

• However, recourse to foreign workers and international students to fill labour market and skill shortages and achieve other policy objectives requires countries to strike a balance to remain competitive destinations for foreign workers to support economic development and, in some cases, address demographic challenges.

• Several European OECD countries have introduced more stringent asylum legislation following a surge in asylum applications and irregular border crossings, and there is continued interest in externalising asylum processing.

• New milestones have been reached in regional co‑operation in migration management. At the EU level, the Pact on Migration and Asylum was adopted following years of negotiation. In the Americas, countries made additional commitments to deepen their collaboration under the Los Angeles Declaration on Migration and Protection.

• Digital technologies and tools are increasingly integrated into migration and asylum systems to improve efficiency and service delivery. These innovations help streamline processes, reduce administrative burdens and improve data accuracy, while providing guidance and integration services to enhance the user experience.

• International student mobility is facing increased scrutiny in 2023‑24 as international student enrolment continues to increase. Many countries are experiencing student numbers far above pre‑COVID levels in 2023. Consequently, major student destination countries are implementing more selective and restrictive measures to limit international student enrolment. These measures are a response to growing infrastructure pressures and aim to ensure the integrity of the student visa system.

• While some concerns have been raised regarding the capacity to sustain high international student enrolment, the retention of international students and their labour market integration continues to be an important policy objective of many OECD countries. Several countries have expanded measures such as post-study work opportunities and job-search visas to increase stay rates and facilitate transition to employment and labour market integration.

Major policy trends in 2023‑24

The 2023‑24 migration policy landscape is shaped by record inflows of migrants and asylum seekers. At national level, many OECD countries, particularly in Europe, are carrying out major reforms of migration and asylum systems to address strains on the capacity for migration reception and integration. At the same time, in many OECD countries the employment of foreign workers remains one of the main responses to significant labour shortages. For some countries with low unemployment and high vacancy rates, attracting and retaining talent remains a priority, while other countries are imposing stricter conditions for labour migration.

Labour migration is used to meet workforce needs but also to reduce net migration

Several major immigration countries in the OECD have recently introduced measures to limit labour migration. Canada is introducing, for the first time ever, a cap on the number of temporary residents in order to reduce their proportion from 6.2% to 5% of the population by 2027. This reduction will notably be driven by a reduction in the firm-level limit of Temporary Foreign Worker Program (TFWP) workers under the low-wage stream, where the limit for most firms will be reduced from 30% to 20%, except in the construction and healthcare sectors. At the same time, Canada aims to stabilise levels of permanent residence admissions, for which targets had been increasing in recent years, by setting targets at 485 000 in 2024 and 500 000 in 2025 and 2026. The United Kingdom announced several changes to the Skilled Worker (SW) route to reduce net migration, including restricting migrant care workers from bringing dependants, increasing the minimum earnings threshold from GBP 26 200 to GBP 38 700, and adjusting the individual occupation “going rate” thresholds in line with median full-time wage for equivalent jobs in 2023. In addition, the Shortage Occupation List will be transformed into an Immigration Salary List (ISL), ending the 20% going rate salary discount for shortage occupations. This measure will consequently reduce the number of jobs where it will be possible to sponsor someone for a Skilled Worker visa at less than the usual salary. New Zealand has tightened work visa rules in the Accredited Employer Work Visa (AEWV) scheme through the introduction of an English language requirement for migrants applying for low-skilled roles, a minimum skills and work experience threshold for most AEWV roles, and a reduction of the maximum continuous stay for most low skilled occupations (ANZSCO level 4 and 5) from 5 years to 3 years. Meanwhile, Australia set its permanent Migration Program targets at 185 000 for 2024‑25, which is a reduction of 5 000 from the 2023‑24 target of 190 000.

Conversely, there is a continued trend among other countries to relax their policies for highly skilled migrants – and in some cases, migrants with middle or lower skilled occupations – to tackle increasingly critical labour and skill shortages. Italy has introduced a new system for its migrant worker quota system, shifting away from annual quota announcement to three‑year programming. In October 2023, Italy approved three‑year admission quotas for labour migrants for 2023‑25, setting the quotas at 136 000 for 2023, 151 000 for 2024 and 165 000 for 2025 which represents a sharp increase in annual quotas from previous years (69 700 in 2021 and 75 000 in 2022). To further address labour shortages, an additional 40 000 quotas for seasonal workers in the agriculture and hospitality sector was announced in August 2023, which concerns applications that had already been submitted under the 2022 annual quota announcement. In addition, Italy has extended the maximum duration of residence permits issued for permanent work, self-employment or family reunification from 2 to 3 years, and introduced the possibility for non-EU nationals to work immediately after entering Italy with a work visa, instead of having to wait for additional procedures. The Korean Government will expand the scope of the industries for which recruitment of non-professional temporary workers (E‑9 visas) is possible. From 2024, these will include restaurants, mining and forestry. Foreign workers with E‑9 visas will now also be able to legally work in businesses with fewer than five employees. Lithuania increased its labour migration quota for 2023 and 2024 to 40 250, up from 35 600 in 2022, for occupations experiencing labour shortages and streamlined the hiring process by removing the need for a labour market assessment. Japan announced a target of 820 000 admissions under its Specified Skilled Worker channel for mid-skilled workers between 2024 and 2029.

Other OECD countries have introduced measures specifically targeting highly skilled migrants. Sweden launched a new model for work permit applications to promote high-skilled migration, featuring improved services for employers recruiting highly qualified workers and specific units for international recruitment. Switzerland abolished the labour market test for highly qualified third-country nationals in sectors facing a skills shortage. Lithuania approved a FinTech Sector Development Plan (2023‑28), which includes measures to recruit more IT specialists from third countries for high-value‑added sectors. Estonia facilitated the hiring of high-skilled foreign workers through a revised salary threshold for highly skilled professionals and introduced incentives for high-growth companies to hire foreign workers. In December 2023, Australia released its new migration strategy, which includes the introduction of a new 4‑year temporary skilled worker visa, granting workers more time and opportunity to change employer and providing a clear pathway to permanent residence. Australia also introduced new streamlined pathways for top global talent.

Several OECD countries also concluded new bilateral agreements with origin countries, to promote labour mobility and ensure that immigrant workers have the required skills. Austria is planning to implement a Skills Mobility Partnership with India, Indonesia and the Philippines to address skilled labour shortages. In June 2023, Switzerland and the United Kingdom signed an Agreement on the Recognition of Professional Qualifications, which includes a transitional system until the end of 2024 and aims to establish a permanent framework for mutual recognition from 2025, pending Federal Assembly ratification. In March 2024, Italy and Tunisia signed an agreement to facilitate the entry of 12 000 Tunisian workers over three years to address workforce shortages in Italy. This agreement simplifies entry procedures and enables extended stays for Tunisian workers. Additionally, an agreement in April 2024 initiated a one‑year pilot project “worker corridors” bringing 300 workers primarily from Libya. In 2023, Greece ratified a bilateral agreement with Egypt regarding the employment of seasonal workers in the agricultural sector, and regularised the status of 3 400 Bangladeshi migrants under the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed with Bangladesh in February 2022. In July 2023, Japan signed a Memorandum of Co‑operation with the Kyrgyz Republic regarding the Japanese Specified Skilled Worker System, to eliminate malicious intermediary organisations and enhance mobility from Kyrgyzstan to Japan. Germany and Kenya are set to finalise a bilateral agreement in September 2024 aimed at establishing a framework for co‑operation on migration and labour mobility, to address labour shortages in Germany by facilitating migration procedures for skilled Kenyan workers while enhancing socio‑economic development in Kenya through remittances and skill transfers. Israel has increasingly been using bilateral agreements and private channels to quickly recruit more foreign workers amid a significant drop in non-Israeli workers following the terrorist attacks on Israel by Hamas in October 2023 (Box 2.1). Furthermore, other initiatives and programmes have been set up or enhanced by destination countries on a unilateral basis, targeting nationals of specific countries, to facilitate and better monitor the mobility of workers. Specifically, Germany has indefinitely extended the Western Balkans Regulations, which were originally set to expire by the end of 2023. These regulations allow citizens of Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo,1 the Republic of Northern Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia to obtain temporary work visas for Germany if they have a job offer from a German employer. The annual quota for these visas has been also doubled from 25 000 to 50 000. To strengthen Australia’s Pacific partnerships, Australia launched in June 2024 a new permanent resident visa programme offering 3 000 slots for nationals from Pacific Island countries and Timor-Leste. The selected applicants must secure a formal ongoing job offer in Australia and meet basic English language, health and character requirements. In New Zealand, the cap for the Recognised Seasonal Employer (RSE) scheme has been increased by 500 to allow up to 19 500 workers from eligible Pacific countries to be employed in the 2023/24 season.

Box 2.1. Recruitment of foreign workers in Israel following 7 October 2023

On 7 October 2023, there were about 310 000 non-Israeli workers employed in Israel, half Palestinian cross-border workers and half from other countries, comprising about 5% of total employment. About 156 000 Palestinians were employed in Israel, of which about 34 000 without a permit. 157 000 foreign workers were employed, about half in the home care sector and the remainder primarily in construction (27 000) and agriculture (24 000).

In the construction sector, non-Israeli workers comprised about one‑third of total employees, and the clear majority of those working on construction sites. They comprised the majority in “wet work” jobs – metalwork, plastering, formwork and tiling – which are necessary at the start and end of the construction process. In the days which followed the terrorist attacks on Israel by Hamas on 7 October, a large part of the foreign workforce was withdrawn as almost all Palestinian cross-border workers were prohibited from entering and many foreign workers left the country. The effect was felt particularly in agriculture, where non-Israeli workers comprised half of the total workforce, and construction. The number of Palestinian workers in Israel fell to about 10 000 by the end of 2023.

Israel had been shifting recruitment of foreign workers away from private intermediation into Government-to-Government (G2G) channels governed by bilateral labour agreements with sending countries (BLAs). Construction workers are generally employed by manpower agencies or foreign contractors and recruited through BLAs and oversight of skills testing.

In the agricultural sector, an exception was allowed in November 2023 to recruit 5 000 workers through private agencies rather than BLAs. The quota for agricultural workers was increased by 10 000 in January 2024. The total quota rose to 70 000 in 2024.

Other quotas were increased: industry to 13 200, tourism to 6 800, trade and services to 6 400, and institutional nursing outside of homecare to 4 300.

In June 2024, the government established an overall quota of foreign workers at 3.3% of the population, or about 325 000. As a temporary measure, the quotas in each sector were allowed to be exceeded by up to 15%, subject to government approval in a fast-track (less than 48 hour) process. A new methodology was introduced to identify quotas for additional sectors. The government also indicated how to determine countries from which private recruitment would be allowed, and when private recruitment could occur from a country with which Israel has implemented a BLA. Pilots may be used to test the feasibility of private recruitment prior to authorising additional recruitment. Information measures are encouraged to reduce the risk of excessive recruitment fees being paid by workers.

The expansion of recruitment in the construction sector has not been simple. The testing procedures in place for construction workers have been strained by the sudden demand and a temporary provision for private recruitment of workers, with and without onsite testing, was put in place, alongside continued recruitment and testing in the framework of BLAs. By early June 2024, almost 30 000 workers had been screened in origin countries and almost 8 000 entered. The number of manpower companies tripled. Recruiting large numbers of workers from countries with which firms had only limited prior experience, or for new firms, has contributed to claims that some of the workers arrived without the appropriate skills and refusal by construction firms to employ them after arrival. In addition, providing housing to incoming workers has been a challenge.

Source: Bank of Israel Annual Report 2023, www.boi.org.il/publications/regularpublications/boi-reports/d2023/; Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, Ministry of Construction and Housing, Government Resolutions.

OECD countries are adopting more stringent asylum policies

Several OECD countries in Europe have introduced restrictions in their asylum legislation to reduce the number of asylum applications and combat irregular migration, notably through stricter immigration reception measures. In Germany, a new law that came into effect in January 2024 is imposing longer detention periods, reduced access to social benefits and measures to facilitate deportation. Italy undertook a series of reforms of its asylum processing and reception system in 2023. The reforms include restrictions in the eligibility for international protection, reducing the grounds on which “Special protection” status, a complementary form of protection, can be granted. In addition, it is no longer possible for special protection beneficiaries to convert their document of stay into work permits, although they will still be entitled to work. Changes have also been made to the asylum reception system, extending the period of detention in state facilities, restricting services such as psychological support, legal aid and language courses in first reception centres, and preventing asylum seekers from accessing reception centres designed to combat social exclusion. The newly formed government in the Netherlands has announced several restrictions related to the asylum legislation, notably to abolish the possibility of obtaining a “permanent asylum residence permit” and automatic family reunification, stricter requirements for temporary residence permits, increased measures to deport rejected asylum seekers and a repeal of the asylum seeker dispersal law that aimed to distribute asylum seekers and refugees more evenly across the country.

As part of ongoing large‑scale reforms of the migration system, Sweden and Finland are aiming to significantly reduce asylum applications. Sweden has introduced limitations to its asylum legislation in recent years, such as limited possibilities to obtain residence permits based on special grounds or exceptionally distressing circumstances (humanitarian grounds) and stricter maintenance requirements for family reunification for persons under subsidiary protection. The government has further launched an inquiry report to review the regulatory framework on asylum to adjust to the minimum level according to EU law, including ways to phase out permanent residence permits for refugees in favour of temporary permits for international protection. Similarly, the government in Finland has conducted a comprehensive review of the asylum application system in other EU member states to identify and adopt the most stringent provisions compatible with EU law. In early 2024, the government proposed a series of reforms, including shorter permits for international protection, a reduction in the reception allowance for asylum seekers and refugees to the legal minimum, and removing the possibility for asylum seekers and refugees to switch to a work or study visa. In addition, plans to establish a new border procedure system for certain asylum applicants is also under consideration. The system would be established at the border with Russia and at international airports and would prevent applicants from moving outside the assigned reception centre during the application procedure. A similar border application procedure has been proposed in the recent EU Migration and Asylum pact for asylum seekers from countries with low acceptance rates (Box 2.2).

In early June 2024, the Biden-Harris administration announced measures to limit entry and restrict asylum during times of high pressure on the southern US border. The measures were presented in the form of a presidential proclamation that temporarily suspended the entry of noncitizens across the southern border, excluding permanent residents, unaccompanied children, victims of a severe form of trafficking and other non-citizens with a valid visa; and in the form of a final rule by the Secretary of Homeland Security and the Attorney General. The rule generally restricts asylum eligibility for those who irregularly enter the country through the southern border. The measures will remain in effect until 14 days after weekly average border crossings fall below 1 500. Other OECD countries in the Americas have eased the conditions for those under international protection to help address labour shortages. Since 2022, Mexico has issued over 17 500 temporary visas to individuals seeking international protection to address labour shortages in the country, as well as introduced a pilot programme to expand labour pathways offering job opportunities and work permits to Haitian migrants. Colombia has announced a regularisation plan through special permits for parents and legal guardians of Venezuelan children with valid Temporary Protective Status.

Through Safe Mobility Offices (SMOs) in Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador and Guatemala, the United States, together with Canada and Spain, allow individuals to apply for international protection or other pathways from a distance early in the migration cycle to deter irregular border crossings. Through recent agreements, the eligibility of the offices in Costa Rica and Guatemala were recently expanded to include applicants from additional nationalities present in these countries.

With Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine going into its third year, the EU Commission has submitted a proposal to extend temporary protection until 4 March 2026. Meanwhile, a number of OECD countries are promoting transition from temporary protection to other residence statuses such as employment. In several OECD countries, this has meant introducing options to transition into alternative pathways for displaced Ukrainians residing under different forms of temporary protection to facilitate long-term stay. Poland and Czechia have recently proposed new long-term pathways for displaced Ukrainians which would replace the temporary protection status for those eligible and willing to switch from temporary protection to long-term residence status. From beginning of 2025, Ukrainian citizens under temporary protection in Poland will be able to apply for a three‑year residence card, provided that they meet certain conditions (including uninterrupted temporary protection status for one year prior to the application date). In Czechia, the government has proposed an amendment to the “lex Ukraine” legislation to allow economically active (economically independent and not in need of state assistance) Ukrainian citizens to obtain long-term residence permits. Austria is planning to extend its Red-White‑Red Plus Card, a combined work and residence permit, to displaced Ukrainians who have worked in Austria for at least 12 months in the two years preceding the application. New Zealand has announced the creation of residence pathway for holders of the Special Ukraine Visa. The residence pathway will be available to visa holders where the principal applicant was granted a Special Ukraine Visa and travelled to New Zealand before 15 March 2024. Switzerland has decided to abolish the three‑month waiting period to enter the labour market for people under temporary protection, to facilitate labour market integration of displaced Ukrainians.

2023‑24 was also marked by a continued interest in the external processing of asylum applications. In November 2023, Italy and Albania signed a collaboration agreement with the aim to establish processing centres in Albania for asylum seekers rescued at sea by Italian vessels. The United Kingdom took one step further towards sending irregular migrants to Rwanda to have their asylum claims processed, by passing the Safety of Rwanda (Asylum and Migration) Act in April 2024. However, following the elections early July 2024, the new Prime Minster has indicated that the government will abolish the policy and terminate the agreement with Rwanda.

Continued regional co‑operation in Europe and the Americas

The EU Pact on Migration and Asylum was adopted by the European Union (EU) in May 2024, following years of negotiation among member states over its exact content. The Pact aims to harmonise migration and asylum policies across member states and centres around four main pillars (Box 2.2). In mid-June, the EU Commission presented the joint implementation plan for the Pact, designed to serve as a template for national implementation plans, which will be rolled out over the next two years. This plan includes ten building blocks to operationalise the measures defined under the Pact’s pillars.

Meanwhile, OECD countries in the Americas are deepening regional co‑operation amid historic levels of migration and displacement. In May 2024, two years after more than 20 states across the Americas signed the Los Angeles Declaration on Migration and Protection, Guatemala hosted the third Ministerial Meeting and side meetings to discuss ongoing co‑operation and outline the agenda for the coming year. The focus remains on three main areas: addressing root causes and supporting migrant integration, expanding legal pathways, and strengthening humane enforcement. During the meeting, signatory countries made several commitments to continued co‑operation, including a pledge by the United States to provide USD 578 million to support partner and host communities in responding to humanitarian needs, expanding pathways and supporting regularisation and integration. Additionally, the United States and Costa Rica announced a biometric data-sharing partnership and continued co‑operation around Safe Mobility Offices (SMOs).

Box 2.2. The four pillars of the EU Pact on Migration and Asylum

On 14 May 2024, the Council of the EU formally adopted the Pact on Migration and Asylum, which includes a set of rules managing migration and establishing a common asylum system at EU level. It aims at offering a comprehensive approach to strengthen and integrating key EU policies on migration, asylum, border management and integration.

The Pact is designed to strike a balance between border control and solidarity in refugee reception, and rests on four main pillars:

• Secure external borders

• Fast and efficient procedures

• Effective system of solidarity and responsibility

• Embedding migration in international partnerships

The implementation of the Pact will focus on faster border processing, to swiftly determine the correct procedure (asylum or return) via new screening procedures. Efficient returns with reintegration support will apply for those not eligible for international protection. The existing Eurodac database will be extended from an asylum database into a fully-fledged asylum and migration database to store and share information across EU countries. The Eurodac asylum and migration database will register everyone who enters the EU as an asylum seeker or an irregular migrant. Information that will be added to the database includes fingerprint, facial recognition and copies of identity and travel documents. The information will a priori be stored up to five years with extension up to 10 years for asylum applicants.

The Pact also sets out to create an effective and mandatory but more flexible needs-based solidarity mechanism, replacing the Dublin Regulation. The needs for relocation of asylum seekers across member states will be determined through an assessment of migratory pressures by the Commission, which will propose the number of relocations and financial solidarity contributions required for the upcoming year. Based on this, the Council will adopt a Council Implementing Act at the end of each year to establish the Solidarity Pool including the pledges that each Member State has made for each type of solidarity contribution. Contribution is mandatory, but countries will have the option to choose between several means of participation either through relocations, financial contributions or other solidarity measures (e.g. staff and in-kind support to other countries).

The Pact further implies closer co‑operation with non-member countries and embed migration in international partnerships, to combat irregular migration and migrant smuggling while promoting legal pathways.

EU Member States will have until May 2026 to put the laws included in the Pact into practice.

Digital transformation and emerging technologies in migration management

In recent years, many OECD countries have been transitioning their immigration frameworks to digital systems, employing online platforms and digital tools to manage visa and residence permit applications and to expand and improve services. This shift is driven by the need to optimise resources and processes, enhance efficiency through automation and paperless procedures, reduce processing times, and improve user experience. While this digital transformation is a widespread trend among OECD countries, they are at varying stages of progress in their digitalisation journeys. Several countries have already fully transitioned their main immigration procedures to online formats or have digitalised most of their processes, including Australia, Canada, Chile, Denmark, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom. Others, like Germany, Japan, Poland, Switzerland and the United States, have partially digitalised their systems. Meanwhile, countries such as Austria, Czechia, Iceland and the Slovak Republic still rely heavily on paper-based and in-person processes (Fragomen, 2024[1]). Despite these differences, there is a clear commitment across countries to digitalise immigration processes, supported by upgraded IT infrastructures and the integration of advanced tools like Artificial Intelligence (AI), sophisticated algorithmic models and blockchain technology.

This shift is reshaping how applications are managed and services are delivered across all aspects of immigration, including labour migration, international student mobility, asylum processing, border management as well as integration services. These efforts also address risk mitigation measures, particularly regarding the viability of automating decision-making tasks and safeguarding the confidentiality and protection of personal data. Notably, blockchain technology is being used to enable secure exchanges of sensitive information, connect various services and systems and improve information flows between authorities.

Digitalising migration systems can help optimise resources and reduce processing times

Countries are increasingly moving immigration processing procedures online and digitising official documents, simplifying the journey for applicants and enhancing the overall user experience. Germany has introduced a new digital platform that allows electronic submission of applications for various permits and provides real-time updates on application statuses. In March 2023, Portugal launched an online platform aimed at simplifying the residence permit application process for citizens from the Community of Portuguese‑Speaking Countries (CPLP) – Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Equatorial Guinea, Mozambique, São Tomé and Príncipe and East Timor. This initiative eliminates the need for these individuals to queue for in-person appointments when applying for a resident permit. Ireland has similarly digitised much of its migration system, covering identity management, decision processing and customer service. The country has introduced a “register once, verify often” approach, leveraging a single platform for a comprehensive view of the customer application and profile.

In late 2023, Canada began the gradual implementation of a new one‑stop shop for Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) programmes and services, providing a user-friendly interface for applications and real-time status updates. The move to online application can also be found at the Canadian provincial level: for example, the Province of Quebec in Canada transitioned to online applications for Quebec Acceptance Certificates and employer-validated job offers. Italy has fully digitised residence permit application and issuance, eliminating the need for physical documents and in-person visits. Lithuania responded to the influx of displaced persons from Ukraine by issuing digital temporary residence permits via its MIGRIS platform, eliminating in-person visits and physical ID cards. Poland has adopted digital identity documents, streamlined processes and enhanced security and convenience. Latvia has started modernizing the Unified Migration Information System software platform, enabling user-friendly e‑services for residence permits and facilitating remote document submission.

In addition to partial or complete digitisation of immigration procedures, some OECD countries are enhancing their IT infrastructures by implementing AI and sophisticated algorithmic models to streamline processes and optimise resources and time, reserving human intervention for more complex case analysis and decision-making. Canada has expanded the use of an automation tool with a triage system for work permit extension applications, applied to the International Experience Canada (IEC) and Post-Graduation Work Permit (PGWP) programmes. This tool sorts applications by complexity, automatically approving routine applications to expedite decision-making while maintaining human oversight for final decisions. Additionally, Canada is undertaking a comprehensive modernisation of its digital infrastructure under the Digital Platform Modernisation (DPM) program, which includes the replacement of the Global Case Management System with a new digital platform by the end of 2024, designed to optimise business processes. Finland introduced a new digital infrastructure to assist in decision-making and automate decisions for work- and study-based residence permits, citizenship, and the renewal of residence permits and residence cards, leaving negative decisions and those requiring individual consideration to immigration officials. In recent years, France has significantly enhanced the digitalisation of its immigration procedures, particularly benefiting foreign students and those applying for the Talent Passport. Since 2021, the “Études en France” digital platform has centralised all administrative procedures for foreign students from the 69 eligible countries. Applicants can handle all aspects of enrolling in higher education online, including submitting applications, tracking progress, communicating with institutions and applying for visas. For the Talent Passport, aimed at highly skilled workers, researchers, artists, and entrepreneurs, the initial visa application can be submitted through the France‑Visas website. Once in France, residence permit applications, renewals and status changes, such as from student permit to Talent Passport, can be handled online via the Agence Nationale des Titres Sécurisés (ANTS) website. In addition, the Ministry of Interior plans to implement an AI-based tool to detect fraud in uploaded documents.

Countries are investing in IT infrastructure to improve data management and exchange

To enhance interconnectivity between systems and improve data and information management across administrations, some OECD countries are modernising their IT infrastructure. Poland has developed a new integrated IT system with the main objective of improving data collection on foreigners through automated reporting processes, with a focus on automation and visual data presentation, to support migration management and facilitate policy making between the various government departments involved in migration management. One of the key features of this new system is the availability of dynamic, interactive dashboards for detailed data analysis, with a data visualisation that makes it easier to read and analyse trends or deviations, as well as a data analysis and self-service reporting tool.

In Portugal, as migration responsibility was concentrated in a new Agency for Integration, Migration and Asylum in 2023, digitalisation of processes accelerated. Applications for residence permits for children under family reunification motives may be submitted digitally via an online portal, with more applications to go online in the future. In January 2023, Lithuania launched the National Data Governance Program to manage and exchange data on foreigners among state institutions and to enhance the oversight of legal migration and integration processes. This programme incorporates a specific task aimed at “Data management and exchange of data of beneficiaries of legal migration and international protection”, focusing on improving the efficiency and effectiveness of handling and sharing pertinent information regarding individuals who benefit from legal migration and international protection.

New tools and matching mechanisms are enhancing the migrant journey and integration

Technologies are also enhancing services for immigrants in destination countries. Estonia launched the “Settling in Estonia” life‑event service, a comprehensive digital adaptation journey accessible via the State Services Platform. This service offers newcomers centralised access to information, guidance, and support for residence registration, language learning, cultural integration, education, healthcare, driving, and social benefits. Canada has renewed its investments in online pre‑arrival settlement services, and at province level Quebec has launched a new portal which gathers all French-language learning services in one place for new arrivals and other residents while British Columbia has launched a new online multi-language information hub for newly arrived immigrants.

AI is increasingly being integrated in labour market matching solutions, notably by providing career guidance to job seekers, matching them with suitable job opportunities by analysing their skills, experiences and preferences, or by predicting labour market trends such as which sectors will experience growth and which skills will be in demand (Brioscú et al., 2024[2]). Across OECD countries, Austria was the first to implement a generative AI solution for client use. The Austrian Labour Market Service (LMS) modernised its job-matching system by launching in January 2024 a ChatGPT-powered chatbot tool to assist jobseekers and LMS staff in career management and job-search orientation based on education, occupation and wages.

Increased use of digital technologies in asylum and irregular migration management

Digital technologies are also increasingly being integrated in European migration and asylum systems, particularly in border management, asylum processing and status monitoring. Estonia invested in digital infrastructure to enhance migration surveillance and ensure legal compliance. In 2023, the Migration Surveillance Database (MIGIS) and the Automated Biometric Identification System (ABIS) went live. MIGIS automates monitoring, aiding officials in enforcing residency laws and preventing misuse. Automated checks ensure officials stay updated on third-country nationals in Estonia, enabling prompt responses to irregular stay. ABIS uses artificial intelligence to compare biometric data, enhancing the reliability of identity verification procedures. Germany has been piloting a blockchain infrastructure, called FLORA, at the Centre for Arrival, Decision, and Return (AnkER) facility in Dresden since April 2021. This system manages national protection and Dublin procedures, streamlining the asylum process. IA technology is also used in Germany to identify and assess voices and language dialects in the asylum procedure (EMN/OECD, 2022[3]).

AI is not only enhancing the management of applications and the prediction of asylum flows but also aiding in the integration of refugees. One area is determining where best to refer resettled refugees, a task traditionally done by case workers, who take into account for example housing and job availability and existing communities. GeoMatch, an AI-driven matching tool developed by researchers at the Immigration Policy Lab (IPL) at Stanford University and ETH Zurich, launched its first pilot in Switzerland in 2020 and in the United States in 2023. This tool assists government agencies and nonprofit organisations in identifying the communities where refugee families are most likely to thrive, thereby directing them towards locations where positive integration outcomes will be more easily achieved. GeoMatch is designed to be integrated within existing institutional structures to provide additional information in the decision-making process alongside expert knowledge, rather than an automated decision-making tool.

Policies for international students

OECD countries have long valued international students for their contributions to the higher education sector and labour market in destination countries. Over the last decade, OECD countries have taken active measures to attract, support and retain international students (OECD, 2022[4]). Their importance was underscored by their relative decline and difficulties during the COVID‑19 pandemic, prompting many countries to implement expansive policies to mitigate losses of international student revenues. These measures contributed to a relatively swift recovery in student numbers in 2021 and 2022 (OECD, 2023[5]). However, some major OECD student destination countries have recently been implementing stricter policies towards international students in response to increasing enrolment numbers, tight housing markets, pressure on public infrastructure and in some countries concerns over misuse. These policy shifts are aimed at regulating inbound student mobility, enhancing the quality of international education and addressing immigration concerns.

Countries implementing stricter entry rules must also take into account the growing importance of tuition fees from international students as a source of university funding, as well as the fact that international graduates constitute an important talent pool to help address skills shortages. Some OECD countries thus tend to focus more on selective criteria for attracting international students and on measures to retain them and facilitate their integration into the labour market.

Major student destination countries are moving to limit international student flows

Three of the top five student destination countries in the OECD are currently revising their policies towards international students to align with efforts to actively manage, regulate and restrict inbound student mobility. Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom have all experienced a surge in post-pandemic international enrolment and shifts in the characteristics of incoming students and the institutions in which they are enrolled. This has led to significant policy shifts in relation to international students and the education sector in recent years.

In the United Kingdom, part of the record-high immigration numbers in 2022 could be explained by a fast-growing number of dependants of international students. Inflow of dependants, who enjoy work rights, increased by 750% between 2019 and 2023 (OECD, 2023[5]). Restrictions related to accompanying spouses came into force in January 2024. Students are no longer allowed to bring family members on dependant visas unless they are pursuing a postgraduate research programme.

Canada and Australia, the third and fourth top OECD receiving countries of new international students after the United Kingdom and the United States, have recently announced policies which represent sharp turns from prior efforts to increase international student numbers. In Australia, the changes are part of a wider reform of the migration system and respond to a recent review of the migration system which found that Australia had not focused enough on capturing the best and brightest international students and that the international student pool was underdelivering relative to its potential as a source of high performing skilled migrants. In the new migration strategy, the government also underlines the need to strengthen integrity in international education. To improve quality and integrity in international education, several changes to have been announced to increase standards for international students and education providers. The first reforms came into effect in early 2024 and include an increase in the financial capacity and English language requirements. Changes to the Graduate Visa – which allows international graduates to stay and search for work – have also been proposed. These changes would lower the maximum eligibility age from 50 years to 35 years and reduce the stay period to maximum 2 years for bachelor and master graduates (3 years for research master and PhD graduates).

Faced with increasing student numbers and a tight housing market, Canada has temporarily capped student permit applications for two years. The aim is to reduce the number of new international student permits issued to around 360 000 in 2024, 35% fewer than in 2023. Additionally, the financial requirement for a new study permit has more than doubled, from CAD 10 000 to CAD 20 635.

Other countries are following suit. After years of rapid growth of international student numbers and critical difficulty in providing student housing, the newly appointed government in the Netherlands has announced intentions to reduce international student numbers through a number of measures. These include limiting the number of programmes with instruction in English, capping the total number of international students and increasing tuition fees for non-EU international students. In response to these intentions, in early 2024, 14 universities presented a proposal on how to reduce the number of international students and preserve and strengthen Dutch language proficiency in higher education and research. In May 2024, the government presented a bill to the parliament with proposed legal changes to allow universities to limit international student enrolment.

Measures to strengthen integrity and to address fraud and misuse of the student visa system are also being implemented. Both Canada and Australia have announced enhanced verification processes for student applications, while the Swedish Migration Agency has presented a series of proposed measures to reduce the misuse of residence permits for studies, including increased language requirements, reinforced intention of study screenings and a streamlined system for higher education institutions to report non-completion of studies. In the United Kingdom, the government commissioned the Migration Advisory Committee (MAC) to perform a “rapid review” of the Graduate visa, a two‑year unsponsored work permit for overseas graduates of British universities, following concerns that the student route was being used to access the labour market rather than to pursue high-quality education. The review, which was presented in May 2024, did not however find evidence of widespread misuse.

The paradigm shift in student mobility policy observed in major English-speaking destination countries and the Netherlands is not representative across all the OECD. Indeed, other countries have accelerated their efforts to attract international students. Korea and Japan are increasingly internationalising their higher education sectors due to a shrinking number of domestic students entering university amidst declining birth rates. Korea announced a plan to attract 300 000 international students by 2027, which would be a 30% increase from 2022 levels. The five‑year plan includes easing visa rules, lowering financial requirements and fast-tracking residency status for STEM graduates. Japan has renewed its ambition to internationalise higher education after the decline in international student numbers during the COVID‑19 pandemic, when entry to Japan was sharply restricted. Before the pandemic, Japan had successfully achieved its international student target of 300 000. The government’s new aim is to reach 400 000 international students by 2033.

Denmark had significantly reduced the number of English-taught master programme places to cut the number of international students in 2021 but has now reversed its approach. In June 2023, the government announced the intention to increase international student mobility by providing a yearly increase of 1 100 additional study places in Master programmes taught in English between 2024 and 2028, and a yearly increase by 2 500 places from 2029 onwards. This change in course is largely driven by labour market demands, and the additional English-taught places will mainly be attributed to academic fields in line with Danish labour market needs.

Countries are becoming more selective in the efforts to attract students

International student policies are increasingly selective, targeting students in specific fields of study or from certain countries or regions. Australia, for example, has introduced specialised fast-track visa streams targeting students from certain nationalities and professions. Indian nationals graduating from Australian higher education institutions are exempt from most changes to the post-study work rights and continue to enjoy stay periods for up to three years for Bachelor (in STEM fields) and Master graduates and four years for PhD graduates. In addition, Australia and India have launched a mechanism for the mutual recognition of qualifications and a joint education strategy. Canada’s Post-Graduation Work Permit Program (PGWP) is also under revision. Effective as of 15 February 2024, international students who complete a master programme of any duration are eligible for a three‑year work permit, a change from the previous policy where the duration of the post-graduation work permit was based solely on the duration of the study program. However, stricter rules for PGWP eligibility will apply to other graduates, to address concerns regarding the quality of education and misuse in public-private partnership college programmes. As of May 2024, international students in a study programme that is part of a curriculum licensing arrangement are no longer eligible for a post­graduation work permit upon graduation.

As part of its plan to increase the number of international students, Korea is particularly focused on attracting students in STEM fields. This includes providing more scholarships, increasing quotas for students from countries that traditionally favour STEM subjects, such as India and Pakistan, and introducing a fast-track to residency status for STEM graduates.

Some countries are also targeting their attraction measures specifically at postgraduate (master’s and doctoral) students. In Canada, open work permits for spouses are now only available for spouses of postgraduate students. Similarly, the United Kingdom is allowing dependents to join students only at the doctoral level or for research-based higher degrees. Sweden is implementing specific measures to attract postgraduate students, including facilitating the transition from studies to the labour market.

Tuition fees are under scrutiny

Tuition fees for international students are under scrutiny in several OECD countries. Norway recently introduced fees for international students from outside the EU/EEA/EFTA area. From the fall semester of 2023, universities and colleges must charge at least cost-covering tuition fees for new degree students from outside these regions, resulting in significantly fewer such students. Finland, which introduced higher tuition fees for non-EU/EEA students in 2017, is now proposing to introduce cost-covering tuition fees for these students attending degree programmes in languages other than Finnish or Swedish. The rationale for the increase is to improve the finances of higher education institutions and encourage international students to remain in the country. Beneficiaries of temporary protection would be exempt from paying tuition fees. Additionally, the Finnish Government has proposed an application fee for citizens of non-EU and non-EEA countries to raise the quality of applications and ease the administrative burden on higher education institutions.

The Netherlands also plans to increase tuition fees for students from outside the EU as part of efforts to reduce student numbers. Meanwhile, Japan has recently decided to allow universities to charge higher fees for international students compared to domestic students. Until now, international and national students in Japan have been charged the same fees.

Retention of students remains an important policy objective to meet labour shortages

Despite a trend towards stricter control over international student enrolment in several OECD countries, governments continue to recognise the significant contributions of international students to the local economy and workforce. Policies aimed at increasing student retention and improving labour market integration, such as expanded post-study work opportunities and pathways to permanent residency, remain a priority for many OECD countries to address labour and skills shortages.

Several countries have made changes to the in-study work rights of international students. Employment during study can help gain valuable work experience in the destination country and is associated with higher retention after graduation. Germany and Korea have extended the number of hours that students are allowed to work, from 120 to 140 days per year in Germany and from 20 to 30 hours per week in Korea. Additionally, students in Germany can more easily change their purpose of stay prior to graduation. New Zealand has expanded the eligibility criteria for students to work during their studies, now allowing employment for all students enrolled in a full-time programme leading to a national qualification at Level 4 or higher.

Other countries have recently introduced measures to facilitate the transition from studies to the labour market. Switzerland is simplifying access to the labour market for non-EU/EFTA international master’s and doctoral graduates from Swiss universities, allowing them to take up jobs in fields facing labour shortages through exemptions from quotas. As reported above, Canada has extended the length of the PGWP to three years for all graduates of master’s degree programmes to facilitate the transition into the labour market. The United States has clarified and extended its rules for F‑1 students, including the possibility for students in STEM fields to extend the Optional Practical Training (OPT) period to seek employment opportunities with startup companies. Denmark recently introduced rules allowing individuals whose residence permits are revoked to remain in the country to complete their studies if they are pursuing professions considered to be in demand in the labour market. Additionally, these individuals will be able to stay for a further six months after graduating to find a job.

Lithuania has increased the number of years following graduation during which international students can apply for temporary residence permits, from two to ten years. Sweden is considering measures to facilitate the transition of postgraduate students and researchers into the labour market by exempting them from salary thresholds and abolishing the requirement to leave the country to apply for a work permit.

In a different direction, Korea is testing whether its international student policy can be combined with its need for seasonal workers. A pilot programme allows parents of international students enrolled outside the Seoul metropolitan area to join their children and take up seasonal work in agriculture and fishing for three to eight months in the same area as the university. The pilot, set to run in 2024, is open to parents younger than 55 years old. Students must have been enrolled in a university outside of the Seoul metropolitan area for at least one year and have at least two years of studies remaining.

References

[2] Brioscú, A. et al. (2024), “A new dawn for public employment services: Service delivery in the age of artificial intelligence”, OECD Artificial Intelligence Papers, No. 19, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5dc3eb8e-en.

[3] EMN/OECD (2022), The use of Digitalisation and Artificial Intelligence in Migration Management, https://www.oecd.org/migration/mig/EMN-OECD-INFORM-FEB-2022-The-use-of-Digitalisation-and-AI-in-Migration-Management.pdf.

[1] Fragomen (2024), Worldwide Immigration Trends Mid-year report, https://www.fragomen.com/trending/worldwide-immigration-trends-reports/index.html.

[5] OECD (2023), International Migration Outlook 2023, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b0f40584-en.

[4] OECD (2022), International Migration Outlook 2022, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/30fe16d2-en.

Note

← 1.  This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with United Nations Security Council Resolution 1 244/99 and the Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on Kosovo’s declaration of independence.