Anti-Corruption and Integrity Outlook 2024

7. Transparency of public information

Introduction

Transparency is a core element of a functioning democracy and is underpinned by the right to access information, understood as the ability of an individual to seek, receive, impart and use information (OECD, 2022[42]). The OECD Recommendation on Open Government emphasises the importance of proactive disclosure of “clear, complete, timely, reliable and relevant public sector data and information” (OECD, 2017[43]). Likewise, the OECD Recommendation on Public Integrity encourages transparency and stakeholders’ engagement at all stages of the political process and policy cycle to promote accountability and the public interest, in particular through: a) promoting transparency and an open government, including ensuring access to information and open data, along with timely responses to requests for information; b) granting all stakeholders – including the private sector, civil society and individuals – access in the development and implementation of public policies (OECD, 2017[17]).

Providing access to public information strengthens public integrity by fostering transparency, thereby allowing citizens gain insights into their governments’ activities and oversight bodies and watchdog organisations to detect possible corruption or raise red flags. This in turn incentivises public officials to behave with integrity and increases accountability in public policymaking and public administration (OECD, 2020[12]). There is also a correlation between availability of public information and levels of public trust in government and satisfaction with public services. On average, 51% of citizens across countries who find information about administrative processes easily available trust their national government. Among citizens who find that information is not easily available, trust in national government is only 22% (OECD, 2022[6]). Importantly, transparency of public information is a core principle of democratic governance and acts as a key defence against the threat of foreign interference, as it enables greater scrutiny of the influences over policy and decision making in public institutions and safeguards against the effects of disinformation.

This chapter explores the state of play amongst OECD countries in enabling transparency of public information and pro-actively disclosing key datasets to business and citizens. It shows that:

• OECD countries have strong regulations and institutions to promote transparency.

• Publication of data or information related to upholding integrity are less frequently published.

• Transparency matters, especially in low-trust contexts.

OECD countries have strong regulations and institutions to promote transparency

Most OECD countries have developed strong rules allowing citizens to request access to public information. Twenty-three OECD countries have regulations establishing that all public institutions and private persons carrying out public duties are holders of public information and that everyone has the right to request access to that information. In thirty-two OECD countries, there are well-defined procedures to request information, including deadlines for processing requests and a right to appeal a decision.

However, such processes require those making a request to first know what information they are looking for, and the various exceptions allowed in most access to information laws leaves significant room for public bodies to deny requests. One way of addressing these shortcomings is via the proactive publication of government data. However, regulations on proactive publication of data are currently underdeveloped. Data are required to be open by default1 in 17 OECD countries, and regulations specify a list of datasets to be published online in 26 OECD countries (Figure ‎7.1). This number has grown with the passage of the implementing act (2023/138) of the EU Open Data Directive (2019/1024), which established a list of datasets2 to be proactively published in all EU countries. More countries should follow suit as such proactive disclosure will allow citizens and businesses to better understand their governments’ activities.

Figure ‎7.1. OECD countries’ rules on transparency

Note: Mexico did not provide information for the criterion regarding “open by default”. Data for Belgium, Colombia, Germany, Hungary and New Zealand were not provided.

Source: OECD (2024[7]), OECD Public Integrity Indicators Database.

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Moreover, most OECD countries have created the institutions necessary to guarantee the access to public information. Twenty-two countries have established a supervisory body, while 28 countries have established a body responsible for monitoring the publication of open data. Such institutions play an important role in ensuring that public bodies comply with the rules in place, thereby increasing government transparency. These bodies are often independent information commissions, agencies, or ombudsman bodies with a specific mandate for access to information; an ombudsman with a mandate on access to information as part of a wide range of other topics (e.g. human rights, discrimination, gender); or a central government authority. To be effective, these bodies must have a clear regulatory mandate, adequate and sustained resources, and capacity for enforcement and sanctions (OECD, 2022[42]).

Publication of data or information related to upholding integrity are less frequently published

In practice, proactive disclosure of key datasets of the public administration is common. All OECD countries publish the results of elections and draft laws sent to parliament. Nearly all OECD countries published the state budget, public tenders, consolidated versions of laws, the company registry and the land registry. However, other data key to promoting integrity and detecting corruption is less commonly available. Less than half of OECD countries proactively publish agendas for Government meetings; asset declarations and summary reports on access to information requests. Less than one-third publish ministers’ agendas, interest declarations, and salaries of top civil servants. Only one in five OECD Member countries publish aggregated lobbying data (Figure ‎7.2). These datasets are key to upholding integrity and should be publicly available. Corruption threats relating to foreign influence and the green transition can only be countered in mature democracies through an insistency on openness.

Figure ‎7.2. OECD countries’ proactive disclosure of data sets

Note: Figure does not include countries that did not provide data.

Source: OECD (2024[7]), OECD Public Integrity Indicators Database.

Transparency matters, especially in low-trust contexts

Levels of trust are closely linked to how people perceive the quality of, and their association with, government institutions in democratic countries (OECD, 2023[44]). Understanding the drivers of trust is important for governments seeking to improve democratic governance, to respond to the most important issues of the day, and ultimately to safeguard prosperity and the public interest.

The OECD Trust Survey found that transparency was among the key drivers of public trust in OECD governments, as it enables governments to engage citizens and stakeholders, to include their perspectives and insights, and to promote co-operation in policy design and implementation (OECD, 2020[12]; OECD, 2023[44]). The Trust Survey found that, on average, almost two-thirds of respondents think that information about an administrative procedure would be easily available if they needed it, and that those who perceive government information to be open and transparent also have higher levels of trust in government (OECD, 2022[6]).

Analysis of the relationship between data in the OECD Public Integrity Indicators on proactive disclosure of information and OECD Trust survey data now supplements these findings on perceptions. Indeed, this new analysis shows there is a positive and significant correlation between the transparency of public information and higher levels of trust in countries that experience a trust deficit (countries where less than half of the population trust the government or are neutral). In countries with high trust and high transparency of public information there is no significant correlation, meaning that the impact of marginal improvements on public information on trust levels cannot be observed statistically, and other drivers of trust may matter more for this group of countries (Figure ‎7.3).

Figure ‎7.3. Trust and transparency of public information in OECD countries

Note: The OECD Trust Survey 2021 covered the following countries in the figure: AUS, AUT, CAN, DNK, EST, FIN, FRA, GBR, ISL, IRL, JPN, KOR, LVA, LUX, NLD, NOR, PRT, SWE. The World Gallup Poll 2021 covered: CHE, CHL, CRI, CZE, ESP, GRC, ISR, ITA, LTU, MEX, SVK, SVN, TUR, USA. Figure does not include countries that did not provide data.

How to read: In countries where trust in government is below 50%, there is a positive correlation between greater levels of transparency of public information and higher trust in government. The dots represent countries, and the dotted lines are trendlines for each category. An upward slope indicates positive correlation.

Source: OECD (2024[7]), OECD Public Integrity Indicators Database; OECD Trust Survey; and World Gallup Poll.

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Notes

← 1.  This means that government data should be public unless their release comes into conflict with other principles. Data should be published in any pre-existing format or language and, where appropriate, by electronic means in formats that are open, machine readable, accessible, findable and reusable, complete with their metadata.

← 2.  These datasets grouped into the following categories: geospatial data, earth observation and environment data, meteorological data, statistics on a number of economic and demographic indicators, data on companies and company ownership, and data on mobility.