This chapter expands on two core governance values promoted by the OECD, namely openness and inclusiveness. It provides an overview of opportunities and challenges to embed the principles of openness and inclusiveness in the Middle East and North Africa to promote open government reforms, address the digital divide and engage underrepresented groups in public life.
Governing for Sustainable Prosperity in the Middle East and North Africa
OECD Public Governance Reviews
Abstract
Openness and inclusion reflect core OECD values that underpin the capacity of governments to design and deliver policies and services that meet the needs of citizens and businesses effectively and efficiently. The OECD Recommendation on Open Government (2017[1]) defines open government as “a culture of governance that promotes the principles of transparency, integrity, accountability and stakeholder participation in support of democracy and inclusive growth”.
When these principles are implemented in synergy to guide government action, they provide meaningful opportunities to deliver results for all groups in society by opening new interfaces to interact with the state, bridging the digital divide and integrating a wide diversity of voices in public decision-making processes, in particular those of traditionally underrepresented groups. Public administrations are able to work better, deliver the services their constituencies need and ultimately enhance the legitimacy of decisions by placing citizens at the heart of policymaking.
Open government reforms therefore help bridge the divide between government and citizens. Beyond their intrinsic value, grounding policies and services in the principles of transparency, integrity, accountability and stakeholder participation can improve processes and outcomes across the full spectrum of public policy. In doing so, these reforms can “help citizens to understand how government works and are able to collaborate with public authorities to improve public decision, policies, services and all kinds of governmental processes (e.g. procurement, budgeting, etc.)” (OECD, 2022[2]). As such, countries and territories are recognising the potential of open government reforms to support the effectiveness of the public sector and to act as a catalyst to achieve broader policy aims, such as promoting inclusive socio-economic development.
Over the last decade, countries and territories in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region have undergone profound transformations, placing citizens progressively closer to the centre of public policy and service design and delivery. This shift in paradigm has been gradually consolidated in a wave of reforms grounded in new development models aiming at building more open and inclusive societies. While progress has been achieved, the promise of these reforms to promote inclusive growth and more participatory decision-making has yet to meet citizen’s needs and expectations.
This chapter focuses on how the principles of openness and inclusiveness are implemented in the MENA region through the promotion of open government reforms as drivers to promote access to information and stakeholder participation, address the digital divide and engage underrepresented groups in policymaking.
For open government to achieve its transformative potential, governments ought to establish ambitious targets that can be measured and showcase impact as well as define concrete responsibilities together with the right resources and skills for their implementation. Fair, inclusive and sustainable development cannot be achieved without an open government agenda that encompasses whole-of-government cross-sectoral approaches, is backed by high-level political support and creates spaces for active public participation.
While the depth and focus of open government reforms in the MENA region vary, some national administrations have been carrying out several efforts to establish an enabling environment for open government reforms at both the national and local level.
At the international level, some countries and territories have taken important steps in recent years, reiterating their commitment and showcasing political support to push forward the Open Government agenda. For instance, Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia adhered to the Open Government Partnership (OGP), the last two also adhering to the OECD Recommendation on Open Government.
Governments have also started developing their institutional, legal and policy frameworks on Open Government, as detailed in the following sections.
Governments are increasingly adopting legal, policy and institutional frameworks to drive the implementation of their Open Government agenda
With the gradual adoption of open government reforms in some countries and territories within the region, various types of legal and policy frameworks have been established to mainstream transparency, integrity, accountability and stakeholder participation. As in many OECD Member countries, policies and initiatives to promote these principles in the MENA region are usually spread throughout several strategic documents and laws, given the transversal nature of open government that affects all areas of the public administration (OECD, 2021[3]). Findings from the OECD Survey on Open Government reveal that OGP national action plans, presented in Box 5.1, have served as relevant policy frameworks for Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia to coordinate horizontal open government initiatives. While most countries and territories in the region do not have a dedicated policy, strategy or action plan in this regard, several have adopted commitments within National Government Programmes or other policy documents, including strategies for digital government, anti-corruption or public sector reform, to promote the implementation of some dimensions of open government (OECD/UN ESCWA, 2021[4]). Alongside this process, various governments have also taken steps to create an enabling regulatory landscape (OECD, 2021[5]), through the inclusion of constitutional provisions that aim to uphold open government principles (such as in Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia). Governments also adopted in recent years amendments of regulations focusing on specific topics including access to information laws (as in Morocco, Jordan, Lebanon and Tunisia), or anti-corruption and whistleblower protection (as in Tunisia).
Since joining the OGP, Jordan (2011), Tunisia (2014) and Morocco (2018) have made over 130 commitments within their national action plans. These commitments have ranged from improving access to information and open data to supporting the media, strengthening national dialogue, supporting open government reforms at the local level as well as promoting the role of women and young people in public life.
Jordan adopted its 5th OGP National Action Plan (NAP) (2021-2025) to advance commitments on strengthening participation mechanisms, supporting civil society, adopting gender mainstreaming in public policies, strengthening the role of young people in government plans, enhancing integrity and engaging local level actors in the design of public services, government projects and investment plans.
The Open Government Unit within the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation (MoPIC) also organised thematic seminars with Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) and government focal points on each of the 4th NAP commitments to exchange good practices, lessons learned and help improve the implementation of the 5th OGP Action Plan.
Morocco has successfully implemented its 2nd OGP NAP (2021-2023). This action plan, developed through an extensive and thorough co-creation process in partnership with Moroccan civil society between January 2020 and June 2021, covers 22 commitments divided into five thematic areas: transparency and quality of public services; equality and inclusivity; open justice; citizen participation; and open local communities.
It capitalises on the progress made during the implementation of the first action plan (2018-2020), particularly in the areas of access to information, support for civil society and strengthening public sector integrity, and further deepens efforts to promote open government at all levels and in all areas. The focus on open justice and the commitments related to the health sector reflect a move toward a broader, integrated approach to open government, highlighting Morocco’s ambition to move toward an open state and expand the reach of open public policies and programmes. This development highlights the evolution from initiatives that focus more on improving the functioning of government and its internal methodology and processes, to initiatives whereby the government adopts an open government approach and tools in the design and implementation of services in different policy areas. In parallel to the finalisation of the implementation of the 2nd NAP, Morocco adopted a new innovative approach in the design of its 3rd NAP, using a “collective intelligence” methodology to facilitate the co-creation workshops held in October 2023. Through this new methodology, supported by academic experts in the field, Morocco aimed at further encouraging a more active and direct engagement of citizens in this process and in the open government field more broadly.
In Tunisia, the government launched its 5th NAP of the OGP in March 2024 for the period 2023-2025. In line with previous national action plans, the 5th NAP comprises 15 commitments divided into four main pillars: transparency and natural resources management; public participation and open government at the local level; accountability and integrity in the public sector; and development and digitalisation of the administrative services.
Moreover, as in the rest of the world, institutions with the mandate to oversee and implement open government reforms have gradually emerged over the last decade in the MENA region, taking different forms across countries and territories in terms of their formality, reporting lines and mandates.
Upon joining the OGP, Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia sought to establish institutional arrangements driving national open government agendas (OECD/UN ESCWA, 2021[4]). Some governments created dedicated teams or units within ministries, such as the Open Government units within the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation (MoPIC) in Jordan and in the Ministry of Digital Transition and Administrative Reform in Morocco. Others added open government to the portfolio of existing teams managing a broader range of policy issues, as in the Office of the Minister of State for Administrative Reform in Lebanon and E-government unit in Tunisia. Countries that have joined the OGP also created multi-stakeholder steering committees or forums, which include both members of government and civil society, to coordinate, implement and monitor commitments in national action plans (OECD/UN ESCWA, 2021[4]).
The evolution of these institutional, policy and legal frameworks in the region has contributed to gradually establishing an enabling environment for the implementation of a wide range of open government reforms at both the national and local level. Open government initiatives in MENA countries and territories have expanded across a wide range of policy issues (OECD/UN ESCWA, 2021[4]). Some of these reforms have facilitated the deployment of response and recovery measures in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic1, whilst serving as drivers to achieve long-term development objectives, including the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (OECD, 2020[10]).
Despite progress to date, the enactment of open government reforms remains uneven across the region. Findings from the OECD and the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (UN ESCWA) (2021[4]) reveal that governments face a series of challenges in ensuring their medium- and long-term sustainability and responding to the needs, concerns and growing expectations of citizens and businesses alike. This move towards embedding open government and its principles in the way public administrations work has yet to be fully translated into robust institutions coupled with sound legal and policy frameworks, with these reforms seen as a policy issue embedded within other sectoral agendas or, in some cases, implemented on an ad hoc basis without a dedicated mandate.
Given the fragmented and short-term nature of policy frameworks for open government in the MENA region, there is an opportunity to consolidate and scale up support for this agenda to better co-ordinate initiatives across levels of government and ensure impactful results for citizens. This is all the more important as open government reforms commonly emerge from the grassroots level through interactions with local governments and their communities.
This be done through open government strategies or other types of broader policy frameworks, combined with tailored and extended co-ordination mechanisms. Putting in place an open government strategy requires setting up the required institutional architecture that can support its effective implementation (OECD, 2021[5]). Strong institutional settings can also help raising open government literacy levels across the administration, clarifying roles and responsibilities, improving accountability lines and fostering high-level political commitment. Examples of institutional frameworks in OECD Member countries and presented in Box 5.2.
Most OECD Member countries have a specific governmental office responsible for the horizontal co-ordination of open government initiatives, which is often located within the Centre of Government and more precisely, in 62% of OECD Member countries, it is placed either in the Office of the Head of Government or in the Cabinet Office/Chancellery/Council of Ministers. In Canada, open government initiatives are co-ordinated through the inter-departmental Open Government Steering Committee, chaired by a Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat, the Chief Information Office of Canada. Mexico created a co-ordinating committee that is integrated in and chaired by the Presidency of the Republic. In the United Kingdom, a group of civil society organisations created the UK Open Government Network that meets regularly with the Cabinet Office to co-ordinate the development and implementation of the United Kingdom´s Open Government Partnership National Action Plans. Italy has established a Forum on Open Government, co-ordinated by the Department of Public Administration of the Presidency of the Council of Ministers.
Source: (OECD/UN ESCWA, 2021[4]).
To go further, the adoption of a whole-of-government approach can provide a more coherent and co-ordinated implementation, which should be coupled with protection and promotion of civic space as a key precondition for open government (OECD, 2021[3]). Acknowledging this need to move towards a holistic approach for these reforms to achieve their full potential, Tunisia and Morocco are currently working towards the development of national open government strategies to align objectives under a common medium- to long-term vision. The development process of the National Open Government Strategy in Tunisia is presented in Box 5.3.
In line with the OECD Recommendation on Open Government, Tunisia committed to designing and adopting a national open government strategy (8th commitment of the 4th NAP of the OGP), thus becoming the first country in the MENA region to launch such a project.
The participatory process to develop a strategy was launched in November 2020, with OECD’s support. In October 2021, following preparatory meetings with the E-government Unit in the Prime Minister’s Office, Tunisia launched an online consultation, partly inspired by a good practice from Argentina. In December 2021, in-person consultation workshops were held with participants from government, public institutions and CSOs to discuss strategic priorities on the three pillars of transparency, accountability and participation. In 2022, Tunisia’s OGP steering committee, comprising government officials and civil society representatives, held a series of meetings to brainstorm, conceive and agree on a national definition of open government as well as a mission and strategic objectives for the strategy. In August 2022, a consolidated draft of the strategy was shared with the members of the OGP steering committee for their approval before the finalisation of the document.
The final draft of the strategy was presented and discussed with public stakeholders and civil society actors during a high-level meeting in January 2023, and is pending official adoption.
Source: Author’s own work.
Open government tools and processes could be further strengthened to promote a culture of openness across public administrations
From a governance perspective, the appropriation of open government reforms across and beyond public administrations could be strengthened. While the concept of open government has gained popularity over the last decade, the degree of open government literacy remains uneven across line ministries, inhibiting a whole-of-government implementation of this agenda. This has in turn contributed to insufficient co-ordination and the fragmented implementation of initiatives reducing their reach and impact, even within governments that have a dedicated unit leading the national open government agenda or ministerial oversight committees (OECD, 2023[11]). To address this challenge, some governments in the region are adopting guidelines, toolkits and conducting trainings to ensure that civil servants and policymakers embody open government principles (Figure 5.1).
Note: From the MENA Region, Morocco, Tunisia and Lebanon responded to this question on the OECD Survey on Open Government.
Source: (OECD, 2021[5]).
Supporting this agenda with adequate human and financial resources will also be crucial. This is a common challenge shared by OECD Member and partner countries who identified “limited communication and awareness of the benefits of open government reforms among public officials” as the second main challenge for open government reforms, the first one being the “insufficient political will/leadership of senior government leaders” (OECD, 2023[11]).
Expanding and diversifying the range of technical capabilities to implement open government reforms may also help governments in the region avoid the common pitfall of overly focusing efforts on one component of open government (e.g. open data, access to information or anti-corruption) without a comprehensive approach to reach the goals of transparency, accountability and participation.
In addition, measuring and showcasing the impact of open government reforms remains a challenge (OECD/UN ESCWA, 2021[4]). While various governments in the region have stepped up efforts in this regard, in particular those within the framework of the OGP, it has proven difficult to quantify the long-term impact of such reforms on broader policy goals, such as health care or education. Findings from the OECD Survey on Open Government (2021[5]) reveal that efforts in the region focus on self-monitoring outcomes through online platforms, such as the interactive Open Government portal in Morocco and the OGP portal in Tunisia, or as a result of ad hoc meetings (e.g. Morocco and Tunisia).
Only a few governments evaluate impact indicators. Where they exist, these can take various forms, including self-assessments, evaluations from the Independent Reporting Mechanism (IRM) and other external surveys conducted by stakeholders which seldom are published online (OECD/UN ESCWA, 2021[4]). The OECD has been working closely with OECD Member and partner countries in the measurement of performance indicators, through the OECD Open Government Dashboard and OECD Citizen Participation Barometer, presented in Box 5.4.
The OECD Secretariat is currently working on a “Framework for Assessing the Openness of Governments”. The proposed framework, which is based on the provisions of the OECD Recommendation on Open Government, is structured as a theory of change and provides the basis for a model showing how the Open Government principles contribute to increased levels of openness and how openness, in turn, has a broader impact. When seeing this as an implementation model, this framework can also represent a suggested “roadmap” for implementing Open Government reforms and assess how they lead to policy change results.
As part of this framework, the OECD is developing the OECD Citizen Participation Barometer with the primary objective to provide policymakers with a concise, data-driven and internationally comparable overview of their countries’ practices in the field of citizen participation, allowing for the identification of bottlenecks and facilitating evidence-based interventions. The Barometer aims to measure meaningful citizen participation with three key considerations:
It considers the implementation or practice instead of governance systems.
It goes beyond availability of participation processes by evaluating aspects such as whether public inputs are indeed considered for public decision-making.
It encompasses the wider ecosystem for participation, explicitly recognising that meaningful participation is not possible without citizens having access to relevant and high-quality information and data and that civic space needs to be protected and promoted to enable impactful government-citizen interactions.
The Barometer’s conceptual framework is framed around three pillars:
1. Inform: this pilar is looking at citizen’s access to information and data as the basis for informed involvement;
2. Enable: this pillar is looking at the protection of civic space as a prerequisite for democratic involvement;
3. Engage: this pillar is looking at citizen’s access to decision-making processes in practice and ability to make their voices heard.
Each pillar encompasses specific indicators that, together, provide an overview of countries’ openness in practice.
Source: (OECD, 2020[12]).
Taken together, these factors are hampering a linear and progressive move towards more open and effective governance models, the full exploitation of the OGP membership, and the translation of open government reforms into more inclusive growth.
Looking ahead, MENA governments should therefore prioritise scaling and expanding the impact of open government reforms with the aim of empowering the next generation of citizens and public officials to implement the principles of transparency, integrity, accountability and stakeholder and citizen participation. Doing this will require setting up adequate legal and regulatory frameworks as well as governance arrangements and mechanisms, together with well-trained civil servants with the capacity to prioritise the principles of openness, being user-driven and proactive in their day-to-day work and with the broader digital government ecosystem.
Open Government initiatives are increasingly being promoted at the local level in the MENA region
Local governments – regional, provincial, and municipal – have a direct impact on people’s daily lives and are essential to building more open and inclusive societies, as that is where “interactions with citizens are most frequent, demands for responsive public services are most pressing and there is often more space to innovate” (OECD/UN ESCWA, 2021[4]). Not only are they responsible for the direct delivery of public services, but also play an intermediary role between citizens and policymakers throughout levels of government.
Beyond initiatives lead by the executive at the national level, open government principles are increasingly being applied and promoted at the local level. According to the OECD Survey on Open Government (2021[5]), some governments in the region are engaging in efforts to implement joint open government initiatives which allows to share good practices and experience across levels of government.
The implementation of open government principles at the sub-national level through the OGP local initiative has also constituted a promising avenue to expand the relevance and reach of localised reforms. Various sub-national authorities in the region have joined the OGP local initiative and developed dedicated action plans in this regard. These actors include the Greater Karak and Salt municipalities in Jordan, the Tangier-Tetouan-Al Hoceima and Beni-Mellal regions, the consortium of Souss-Massa, Oriental, Draa-Tafilalet and Laayoune-Sakia El Hamra and the municipalities of Tetouan and Agadir in Morocco, and El Kef, Regueb, Zriba, Dar Chaabane El Fehri and more recently Carthage in Tunisia (OGP, 2022[13]).
Ongoing efforts undertaken in the MENA region to decentralise power to the sub-national level have also been important drivers of open government reforms and have served to reiterate commitments to bridge the gap between public institutions and its citizens at the grassroots level. These processes have been shaped by territorial administrative decentralisation or regionalisation reforms in countries such as Egypt, Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia. Together with the implementation of open government initiatives at the local level, of which a few examples are presented in Box 5.5, these reforms offer an opportunity to strengthen the role of local governments in shaping new governance models.
Acknowledging the need to decentralise power to the local level, governments in the MENA region are progressively taking steps to embed the principles of transparency, integrity, accountability and stakeholder participation alongside this process.
For example, Jordan embarked on a decentralisation reform process in 2015 with the aim to empower sub-national administrations and place citizens at the heart of local decision-making. In doing so, it sought to expand engagement efforts with citizens and to help ensure development plans reflect community needs more accurately. Consultations with stakeholders from civil society, academia and unions took place as a part of three National Dialogues in 2015, 2019 and 2020 respectively on the political reform of decentralisation. This platform contributed to the drafting of a new local administration law, which sought to revamp decentralisation efforts by granting new powers and procedural requirements for Local, Executive and Governorate Councils.
More broadly, open government reforms at the local level have also begun to flourish in the MENA region. The interface between local authorities and citizens offers direct opportunities for the public to participate in the decision and policies that affect their daily lives. Some examples include:
In Morocco, the Ministry of the Interior's General Directorate for Local Authorities (DGCT) is leading the way for a structured and integrated promotion and implementation of open government principles of transparency, access to information, accountability, citizen participation and digitalisation at the local level, in line with the ambitions of the regionalisation process. In 2022, this work led to the launch of the Support Programme for Open Local Authorities (PACTO) and the creation of the Moroccan Network of Open Local Authorities (REMACTO) as part of the programme. REMACTO provides a forum for exchange, dialogue, capacity-building and mutual learning between local authorities committed to openness. An initial cohort of 63 local authorities, including 50 municipalities, joined the network, and a second pilot group joined in February 2024. As part of the Network, the DGCT supported local and regional authorities in the design of local openness programmes.
In Lebanon, local governments incorporate open government principles from the Municipal Act of 1977. More recently, the 2017 Right to Access to Information Law requires central institutions and municipalities to publish all administrative documents (decisions, budgets, annual accounts and tenders), create special websites for this purpose, and reply to access to information requests.
Nevertheless, in the MENA region as elsewhere, local governments generally face similar challenges to their national counterparts in transitioning towards a culture of open government. Factors such as insufficient co-ordination, unclear roles and responsibilities, low political buy-in, lack of technological maturity and scarce human and financial resources are among some of the key barriers observed across countries and territories in the region (OECD, 2020[14]; OECD, 2019[17]; OECD, 2020[18]).
Based on over a decade of work supporting governments in the region, the OECD has identified various supporting conditions to strengthen the enabling environment for open government reforms to flourish at both the national and local level (OECD, 2020[19]):
Enabling the right legal and institutional framework
Securing strong political leadership at the central and local levels
Stimulating civil service capacity and leadership
Protecting and promoting a robust civic space
Fostering the participation of a wide variety of stakeholders
Promoting a sound media and information ecosystem
The success of open government reforms also depends on the implementation of open government measures, laws and standards by public officials. MENA governments have embarked on a number of initiatives to translate these frameworks into practices supporting effective access to information, sustained dialogue and citizen and stakeholder participation in public life.
Some significant advancements in terms of transparency and access to information in the region, although legal and regulatory frameworks could be further consolidated
Transparency is a core building block of open government by facilitating the accessibility of public information and data together with its proactive disclosure. The OECD defines transparency as “stakeholder access to, and use of, public information and data concerning the entire public decision-making process, including policies, initiatives, salaries, meeting agendas and minutes, budget allocations and spending among others” (2021[3]). It is fundamentally about ensuring that citizens and other stakeholders can exercise their voice, observe, understand and monitor the activities of the government on decisions that affect their daily lives. For it to achieve its full potential, the OECD Recommendation on Open Government (2017[1]) calls on governments to promote the disclosure of “clear, complete, timely, reliable and relevant public sector data and information that is free of cost, available in an open and non-proprietary machine-readable format, easy to find, understand, use and reuse, and disseminated through a multi-channel approach”.
In the MENA region, the Arab uprisings brought about a profound transformation driving a more favourable enabling environment for access to information (ATI) through developments in terms of its legislation and operationalisation (OECD, 2019[20]). The right to access information is, in many countries and territories, stated in the Constitution or in constitutional provisions, and institutions guaranteeing the right to access information (IGAI) have been set up to operationalise this right. As of 2024, five countries (Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia and Yemen) had a law guaranteeing the right to access to information (Table 5.1), and three of them had a Commission overseeing its implementation. The Palestinian Authority developed a draft law in 2018, which has yet to be adopted. Nevertheless, the Authority's new comprehensive reform programme in 2024 included the adoption of an ATI law as a key priority under its "Democracy and Human Rights” pillar. Additionally, countries such as Kuwait and Iraq have been in the process of developing such laws in the past years (ESCWA, 2024[21]). In the case of Algeria, the High Authority for Transparency, Prevention and Fight against Corruption is responsible for the oversight of broader transparency and anti-corruption commitments within the Constitution and the Communal Code, despite the absence of a dedicated ATI law.
Following the adoption of these laws, countries and territories in the region have established diverse types of mechanisms to operationalise ATI. Box 5.6 presents examples of tools and mechanisms developed by MENA governments. Notably, efforts have sought to address low levels of awareness that exist about ATI both across society and public administration. OECD data show that practices used to facilitate information requests in the MENA region have included the provision of information on how to make a request online, the assignment of a dedicated body/public official as an assistance point, or the provision of specific support for requesters who may face particular challenges due to disabilities, for example (Figure 5.3) (2021[5]). This data also reveals, however, that mechanisms are not always anchored in ATI legislation and/or policy frameworks, which may hinder their degree of institutionalisation, take up and enforcement. While these efforts together have progressively enhanced access to public information, this right remains underutilised, with proactive disclosure policies implemented and monitored unevenly across institutions in an ad hoc manner according to available capacities, resources and staff (OECD, 2023[23]; OECD, 2021[24]; OECD, 2019[20]).
Jordan, as the first country in the MENA region to pass legislation on access to information in 2007, developed three protocols for classifying, enforcing and managing information. Their overall objective is to provide clear procedures and standards for public bodies subject to the ATI law. The protocols were elaborated by a multi-stakeholder committee composed of government officials, CSOs, academics and international experts, and were subject to a public consultation over the course of 2020 and adopted by the Council of Ministers in December 2020. In April 2024, an amended version of the ATI law was adopted.
Tunisia, Morocco and Lebanon have introduced explicit references to the ATI right in constitutional amendments over the last decade. Related laws were then adopted in the three countries, the Organic Law 2016-22 in 2016 in Tunisia, a law in Morocco in 2018 and in Lebanon in 2017 respectively. The countries’ new Constitutions provided also for the creation of more or less independent institutions, responsible for protecting and developing civil and human rights. Within the sphere of their jurisdiction, collegial commissions or other types of bodies participate in promoting and defending access to information. The Tunisian National Authority for Access to Information, for instance, is an autonomous legal entity. In Jordan, the Information Council was set up in 2007. In Morocco, the Moroccan Commission on Access to Information is placed under the responsibility of the Head of Government. In Lebanon the National Anti-Corruption Commission ensures the right to access of information.
Note: N= 4 countries from the MENA region, including Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia.
Source: (OECD, 2021[5]).
Open data policies have also helped advance efforts to promote the transparent sharing of statistics, data, plans and operation in the region. These initiatives have often preceded and advanced at a faster pace than ATI efforts in the region. Notably, several governments have adopted open data strategies and/or developed open data portals (Table 5.2) (OECD/UN ESCWA, 2021[4]). The legislative framework for open data includes legal aspects related to citizens’ right to access and use government data, as well as the right to reuse and distribute data; grant a license for reuse; publication exemptions; and the protection of personal data. While few MENA governments have set up such a regulatory framework to date, relevant examples can be highlighted (See Box 5.7). Despite these frameworks, no MENA government has adhered to the Open Data Charter, which was adopted at the OGP Summit of 2015 in Mexico.
As part of ongoing efforts towards enabling a data-driven public sector, countries and territories in the MENA region have sought to catalyse the value of open government data. The following provides some examples of successful initiatives in this regard.
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has placed open government data high on its national agenda, namely through the UAE Government Strategy (2011-2013) and the UAE Vision 2021. In 2011, the government published a set of open data principles and guidelines for UAE government entities in a bid to improve co-ordination and coherence on the release of open data by public sector organisations. Since then, the government has continued to launch and pass a series of high-level policies including the Dubai Data Strategy, the Dubai Data Law, the DubaiPulse platform, open data portals (i.e. the UAE’s data portal [bayanat.ae] built on the existing government portal [u.ae], the Abu Dhabi open data portal [addata.gov.ae], the Ajman data portal [ajman.ae/en/ajman-data]), and the Abu Dhabi Government Data Management Policy and Standards. This is all with the aim of developing a mature open data ecosystem that can support the advanced analytics and digital services, and collaboration with external stakeholders built on data protection and privacy.
In 2019, in Morocco, to support the promotion of open government data and strengthen its impact, the Government established an Open Data Steering Committee, coordinated by the Digital Development Agency (ADD). The Committee created four thematic working groups for the inventory of data, the identification of a repository to be developed, technical standards, and communication, awareness-raising and training of public, private and civil society actors on open data. In this framework, Morocco also established an action plan defining short, medium and long-term actions and launched the National Open Data Portal (http://data.gov.ma) in December 2021. The technical sophistication and usability of the portal suggest an awareness of the potential of open data to engage with civil society and businesses to create good governance for social and economic value. Available datasets cover a wide range of subjects, including health, finance, education, employment, geo-data, and tourism.
In Tunisia, the national open government data portal (http://data.gov.tn/fr) provides easy access to datasets on a wide variety of subjects. This national open data is complemented by other sectorial open data portals, such as the ones of the Ministry of Interior (opendata.interieur.gov.tn), Ministry of Transport (data.transport.tn) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources and Fisheries (agridata.tn). The E-Government Unit in the Prime Minister´s Office ensures the monitoring of open government data, and follows up on implementation by central government. The national open government data portal is complemented by open data portals of various sectoral ministries.
In Jordan, the Ministry of Digital Economy and Entrepreneurship (MoDEE) has developed a procedural framework for classifying, measuring, and evaluating the quality of open government datasets. MoDEE also manages Jordan's Open Government Data Platform, which allows concerned entities to access governmental data and enables all beneficiaries to access the list of government data available. This platform reviews the open datasets in possession of government agencies in open and machine-readable formats, so that, according to the conditions contained in the Jordanian Open Government Data License, it is allowed to use the datasets published on the platform, reuse and redistribute them by anyone and in any place for any purpose. This is done in accordance with the Open Government Data Policy issued by the Council of Ministers in 2017, and the instructions for publishing open government data on the platform issued in 2019. Moreover, as provided for in the National Digital Transformation Strategy and Implementation Plan (2021-2025), MoDEE is currently developing a more advanced "Open Data Portal" that will have more modern features in line with international good practices.
While countries and territories in the region have made significant progress in terms of promoting access to information as well as the use and reuse of open data, evidence suggests that legal and regulatory frameworks for ATI should be further consolidated, implemented consistently and further aligned with good international practices. Additional capacities should be built in the public administration to speed up processes, monitor compliance with proactive disclosure and handle requests more swiftly and competently. National ATI institutions have an important role to play in this regard.
Useful avenues to promote access to public data and information could include awareness-raising campaigns for a more informed citizenry to make ATI requests, formal capacity-building efforts to strengthen knowledge and skills to implement this right within the administration and leveraging transparency portals to provide up to date, clear and reliable information proactively. Streamlining and enhancing proactive disclosure of information, especially with information and data related to crises, would also reduce the administrative burden for public officials handling and answering individual ATI requests and support more effective access to information. At the same time, more traditional non-digital tools should still be used to avoid widening the digital divide and make sure the most vulnerable segments of the population are able to consult key information.
Leveraging public communication is paramount for governments in the region to foster transparency, participation and government effectiveness
Governments are encouraged to make a strategic use of public communication as a tool to enhance the visibility of open government reforms, raise awareness and engage citizens and stakeholders in participation processes. Indeed, public communication plays a critical role in safeguarding an open, transparent and inclusive interface between the government and its citizens. The OECD defines public communication as the government function to deliver information, listen and respond to citizens in the service of the common good (OECD, 2021[29]). It is distinct from political communication, as it is not linked to political parties, debates, or elections. When conducted strategically, it can fulfil different key roles, such as acting as an enabler of government-stakeholder dialogue; a means to greater transparency and participation; and an instrument for better policies and services. At its core, it implies a two-way relationship that allows governments to understand, listen and respond to citizens, supporting a stronger engagement from their end in public life. The effective dissemination of government information is also a pillar of transparency and a key means to allow stakeholders to hold the government to account.
Evidence also suggests that public communication remains underutilised as an instrument for openness and more inclusive policymaking. As in many OECD Member countries, most Centres of Government (CoG) surveyed in the MENA region and responsible for leading the strategic direction of this function consider promoting transparency (75%) as a priority objective of public communication activities, in stark contrast to the promotion of participation (OECD, 2021[29]). Data also suggest there is room to diversify public communication efforts and target underrepresented groups more explicitly across the work of both CoGs and ministries alike. In fact, only two out of four MENA CoGs surveyed target key groups as part of their communication work, and limited efforts exist to reach audiences such as the elderly, individuals with disabilities, ethnic minorities and migrants (OECD, 2021[29]).
Promoting more inclusive communication will be critical for governments in the region to expand the reach of policies and services to a wider range of actors, in particular to engage with and give a voice to traditionally underrepresented groups in policymaking. Acknowledging these challenges, various governments in the region adopted a regional charter on public communication, agreeing on guiding principles, identifying standards of effective communication and means to improve the contribution of this function to the open government principles of transparency, integrity, accountability and participation (Box 5.8).
The MENA-OECD Regional Charter was developed with the aim of defining standards and rules to enhance the professionalism of public communication and its contribution to open government principles. The charter’s objectives include defining key values and principles, sharing insights and best practices, pooling resources and developing strategic communications. The structure of the charter underlines the main objectives, guiding principles for public communicators and a list of the actions that adherents should undertake. To do so, it covers overarching goals of improved transparency, professionalism, collaboration, networking and peer support. Ultimately, the charter aims to strengthen the two-way dialogue between governments and citizens and contribute to a more open government.
The charter was developed in the framework of the OECD Citizens’ Voice project, building on outcomes of policy discussions among governments, as well as the key findings from OECD reviews of public communication structures, processes and practices in Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia.
Better engaging citizens and stakeholders in decision-making processes allows to design and deliver more relevant and inclusive policies across the MENA region
Establishing a culture of participation enables governments to engage with and better understand the needs of citizens and stakeholders for the design and delivery of more relevant and inclusive policies and services. The OECD defines stakeholder2 participation as “all the ways in which stakeholders can be involved in the policy cycle and in service design and delivery (2017[1]).” It thus refers to the efforts by public institutions to communicate, listen to and integrate the views, perspectives and contributions from citizens and stakeholders into public decision-making. When carried out effectively, participation around the policies and decisions that affect the daily lives of citizens and stakeholders can improve the relevance of policy outcomes and garner support for policy measures. It can also “build civic capacity, improve the evidence base for policymaking, reduce implementation costs, and tap wider networks for innovation in policymaking and service delivery” (OECD, 2016[33]). In this regard, the OECD Recommendation on Open Government (2017[1]) recognises the importance of granting all relevant actors equal and fair opportunities to be engaged for the effective deployment of open government reforms.
Stakeholder participation, however, is not a linear concept. It comprises different modalities as well as degrees of involvement across the different stages of the policymaking cycle. As part of its framework of analysis, the OECD ladder of participation distinguishes between three levels of stakeholder participation (2016[33]):
Information: refers to the one-way relationship in which public organisations produce and share information for the general public, which cover both “reactive” measures responding to citizens and stakeholders’ information demands and “proactive” measures to disclose information and publish open datasets.
Consultation: refers to the two-way relationship in which citizens and stakeholders provide feedback to the government, where public institutions still define the issues for consultation, set the questions and manage the consultative process.
Engagement: refers to the provision of opportunities for stakeholders, as well as adequate resources (e.g. information, data and digital tools), to collaborate with public institutions throughout the policymaking cycle (OECD, 2016[33]). It may include elements of co-decision or co-production.
In the MENA region, the use of participation mechanisms to engage with various groups in policymaking are diffused practices across countries and territories. Indeed, there is a diverse breadth of participation mechanisms that have been utilised to progressively give a voice to the public on issues that matter most to them, as presented in Box 5.9. In this regard, the preparation of OGP National Action Plans in Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia appear to have frequent and diverse forms of citizen and stakeholder participation, through online consultations, meetings, national dialogues forums, technical boards and local councils amongst others. OECD evidence reveals, however, that participation in the MENA region is more frequent in the design of policy documents and gradually declines during the stages of implementation and monitoring as in many OECD Member countries (OECD, 2021[5]). Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) and academia are the main actors engaging in these processes, with citizens, trade unions and the private sector, involved to a significantly lesser extent (OECD, 2021[5]).
Promoting the participation of Jordanian and Tunisian stakeholders in the OGP process and beyond
In Jordan, the 5th and current OGP National Action Plan (NAP) (2021-2025) was developed following the advanced consultation model which the OGP advises. A first draft of the methodology for the development of the NAP was submitted for review and approval to a multi-stakeholder forum consisting of representatives from CSOs and governmental bodies and chaired by MoPIC. The methodology was then published to receive public comments and feedback. Once it was finalised, the methodology was implemented through activities involving governmental and non-governmental institutions to draft the final commitments of the NAP. Notably, MoPIC launched a new version of the Open Government Unit’s website, where it published the invitations to the public to participate in the activities, disseminated the results of each stage of the process, and received feedback from stakeholders.
The Government has also undertaken efforts to open spaces for citizens and stakeholders to take part in its ongoing decentralisation reform. With the support of the OECD, a series of national dialogues were organised convening over 1,500 members of civil society. Recommendations by attendees informed the drafting of the new local administration law and capacity-building efforts to strengthen capacities of local and governorate councils.
Similarly, Tunisia has already drawn up five NAPs of the OGP in a participatory way through online consultations and workshops. The co-creation process of the 5th NAP started with an online public consultation and several public consultation meetings held in different regions of the country with representatives from municipalities and CSOs active at the local level, followed by a workshop with representatives from public bodies, civil society, and partner institutions to present and discuss the result of this extensive consultation phase. This first phase was followed by several working sessions of a Joint Steering Committee (composed equally of representatives from public institutions and CSOs) to draft commitments based on the propositions gathered, which were later published for a last round of online public consultation.
Open data hackathons in the United Arab Emirates
The Telecommunication Regulatory Authority (TRA) of the UAE developed in 2018 its official Hackathon website3. It comprises a number of hackathons that take place at specific locations throughout the seven emirates to provide an opportunity for different groups —including students, entrepreneurs and IT experts—to use and reuse open datasets to come up with solutions based on specific themes and challenges facing the administration. The government also supports the translation of successful ideas into real life projects.
These spaces for stakeholders to directly help in finding solutions to the most pressing policy issues achieved important results. In the first three versions, about 6,306 participants grouped in 764 teams developed 872 ideas, based on over 3,566 public datasets. Organisations expressed interest in 161 innovative ideas.
The Open Government Participatory website of Morocco
The open government portal of Morocco was launched with the aim of providing an online interface for the co-creation of the second OGP NAP for the 2021-2023 period, with the support of the OECD. Through its interactive functionalities, stakeholders were able to submit ideas and proposals as well as consult information on and register for thematic events and co-creation webinars along 10 axes: “integrity and fight against corruption, access to information, gender equality, innovation and digital governance, transparency on budget and taxation equity, open justice, participative democracy, inclusiveness and inter-regional equity, quality of public services and environment and access to natural resources” (OECD/UN ESCWA, 2021[4]). These inputs informed discussions of the OGP steering committee and identified implementing public administrations, and resulted in 22 commitments. In addition, in December 2021, Morocco launched the online “civil society space” on the national open government portal to increase the engagement with CSOs in the OGP process and open it more largely to civil society, in addition to the CSOs taking part in the OGP steering committee, thus building on the participatory approach adopted in the co-creation process and strengthening it beyond it. Similarly, the new version of the portal also includes a comment section for the implementation of each commitment as well as a public consultation module, in an effort to further engage citizens and CSOs throughout the implementation of the NAP.
MENA governments could leverage existing online platforms to allow for more direct consultations for policymaking with citizens and stakeholders
The adoption of online portals launched by both government and civil society stakeholders by various MENA governments has also supported the steady opening of new interfaces for citizens and stakeholders to interact with public institutions. While not exhaustive, Table 5.3 provides some examples. Most online platforms in existence facilitate the ability of the public to consult information, report issues or share complaints. Figure 5.4 illustrates the main functionalities in online platforms from respondents in the MENA region (Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia), which focus on providing information to stakeholders on their right to participate and past consultations. However, it is less common for most government-wide portals to provide feedback to citizens and stakeholders on their inputs and contributions, if this functionality is available at all. In addition, these platforms are often underutilised due to lack of awareness around their existence or due to low levels of digital literacy.
Online portals for citizen and stakeholder participation developed by select MENA governments
Source: Author’s own research.
Note: N=13 based on 10 government-wide platforms and 3 institution-specific platforms in Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia.
Source: (OECD, 2021[5]).
Building on these efforts, there is an opportunity to leverage existing online platforms to expand their functionalities and allow for direct spaces to conduct consultations for policymaking. In particular, interfaces where government institutions publish consultations and other engagement opportunities can help facilitate exchanges with citizens and stakeholders when designing public policies, and widen the opportunities to those who are unable to attend in-person meetings (OECD, 2021[3]). Efforts in this regard have begun emerging in some countries such as Morocco, with the launch of its open government interactive portal4 (see Box 5.9 above). Opening new spaces for a two-way dialogue to take place will be all the more important, as a more collaborative and inclusive approach in the form of e-participation needs to be mainstreamed in most MENA countries and territories. In fact, this will be even more important as many of the countries and territories in the region are below the world average in regard to the e-participation index (see Figure 5.5). Promoting the integration of open government portals in the region could also facilitate their use by citizens, reduce costs and facilitate their management.
E-Participation Index in select MENA countries and territories, 2022
Source: Author‘s work based on (United Nations, 2022[36]).
Opportunities for citizen and stakeholder participation in MENA countries and territories would benefit from more formal policy frameworks that ensure a whole-of-government approach
While governments have progressively spearheaded efforts to engage with citizens and stakeholders in policymaking, these developments have unfolded at a different pace across the region. According to the OECD and UN ESCWA report (2021[4]), efforts from governments in the MENA region are still needed to enable a transition from the most basic forms of stakeholder participation (informing and consulting) towards more meaningful and structured opportunities for collaboration and engagement. In this regard, addressing uneven capacities across countries and territories to institutionalise stakeholder participation mechanisms, ensure their representativeness and provide meaningful opportunities to directly contribute to the design of policies and services will be critical for this transition to take place.
A common challenge that countries and territories in the MENA region are confronted with is the fragmented, ad hoc and non-institutionalised nature of stakeholder participation efforts across the whole of government. As in many OECD Member countries, participatory processes are often deployed in a decentralised manner with uneven capacities, resources and skills available at the level of line ministries (OECD, 2021[3]). OECD evidence reveals that while responsibilities for citizen and stakeholder participation are assigned to an office or institution in each of the four MENA countries surveyed, responsibilities at the level of line ministries are less clear-cut with two countries reporting that between 1% - 49% of ministries have available staff to conduct these exercises, and the rest not having this information available (OECD, 2021[5]).
Incorporating the views of a wide range of stakeholders in participatory processes, particularly those of traditionally underrepresented groups, is also a recurring challenge in the region. According to the OECD survey on Open Government (2021[5]), some governments in MENA are progressively establishing mechanisms to engage young people and women in certain policymaking processes, as presented later in the chapter. Nevertheless, strategies to involve other traditionally underrepresented groups in public life, such as people with special needs, minority ethnic groups, refugees and the elderly, are less prominent (Figure 5.6). Inclusive policymaking is essential in ensuring the effective uptake of policies and services that respond to citizens’ needs, expectations, preferences and habits.
Note: N= 4 countries, including Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia.
Source: (OECD, 2021[5]).
Considering these challenges, countries and territories in the MENA region stand at an inflection point to revamp and scale existing consultation, participation and engagement practices that are fundamental to improve the quality of policies, laws and regulations. Opportunities for participation would benefit from improving their systematic application, representativeness and robustness across all stages of the policymaking cycle.
Promoting the establishment of formal policy frameworks for whole-of-government stakeholder participation that would consider specific needs throughout the whole public policy cycle will be key in this regard. The establishment of an assigned team, office or body that could lead these efforts and sensitise public officials would also be crucial to support the implementation of such frameworks. The OECD has developed a series of guidelines to accompany the planning and implementing of citizen participation processes that are presented in Box 5.10.
The OECD has outlined eight steps for planning and implementing a citizen participation process:
1. Identifying the problem to solve: The first step when deciding if citizen participation is necessary is to identify if there is a genuine problem that the public can help solve. It is also important to be clear about the stage of the decision-making process in which citizens’ inputs are most valuable and can have influence.
2. Defining the expected outcome: Before involving citizens, it is essential to have a clear understanding of the expected outcomes of the process. This means the desired type of inputs and the impact they will have in the scope of your project.
3. Identifying available resources: The necessary resources vary depending on the design and implementation of the process. Some elements that will impact the amount and type of resources needed can include: the scope of the process (timeframe, quantity of participants), the method used, the type of recruitment, the tools and some logistical considerations such as venues and facilitation. The resources can be human, financial, and/or technical.
4. Identifying the relevant public to be involved and recruitment: The next step is identifying the public to be involved in the process, depending on the purpose. This decision will affect how the public will be selected or recruited.
5. Choosing a participatory method: Once the problem to solve, the expected inputs, and the public you are working with have been identified, it is time to choose the method of participation. There are many different methods that can be used to engage citizens in any given context, including information and communication, open meetings/town hall meetings, civic monitoring, representative deliberative processes, among others.
6. Tips for implementation: The implementation of a participation process largely depends on the method chosen. Key elements of each model are outlined in the previous section. However, there are some general considerations that concern any participatory process – such as preparing an adequate timeline, communication strategy and selecting appropriate digital tools.
7. Keeping your promise: Getting back to participants and the broader public about the results of the citizen participation process is an essential step. It is also one that is often neglected. Without proper acknowledgement of the hard work and inputs from citizens and stakeholders, participants might get a wrong message that their input was not important or will not be taken into account, discouraging them from participation in similar activities in the future.
8. Evaluating the participatory process: Evaluation allows to measure and demonstrate the quality and neutrality of a participation process to the broader public. This can increase trust and legitimacy in the use of participation processes for public decision-making and implementing projects.
Source: (OECD, 2022[37]).
Any formalisation of participation and engagement in the policy cycle and concrete demonstration of a political will to take better account of the needs of people will help to anchor practices and change the culture of governance.
Interestingly in Morocco, the Special Commission for the Development Model was established in 2019 by the King with the mandate to undergo a diagnostic of the development situation in the country and define the contours of a New Development Model through a participatory approach. In 2020, it adopted a collective intelligence methodology and implemented a multi-channel participatory process with eight consultation methods: (1) stakeholder hearings; (2) working sessions; (3) citizen meetings bringing together 30 to 60 participants selected through an online call for proposals in all 12 regions of the country; (4) listening sessions organised by local associations; (5) an online survey ; (6) field visits by Commission members to the country's 12 regions; (7) calls for written contributions organised with institutional partners; (8) free contributions from individuals and organisations. In total, through these methods, the members of the Commission interacted with almost 9,700 people, gathering written contributions from 6,600 individuals and 185 organisations. The online platform attracted about 50,000 unique visitors, and the campaign launched on social networks reached nearly 3.2 million citizens (Paulson, 2021[38]).
An enabling environment for civil society to operate is a prerequisite for effective stakeholder engagement
Civic space5 is a prerequisite to effectively engage citizens, stakeholders and CSOs in decision-making processes (OECD, 2022[39]). As an important element of protecting and promoting a healthy civic space, governments in the region could increasingly strive towards strengthening an enabling environment for a diverse civil society sector to operate.
Indeed, civil society organisations have played a key role as advocates, watchdogs and contributors to the improvement of public policies and services in the MENA region. Following the Arab uprisings, these actors have increasingly consolidated their presence and contributed to a number of key reforms across the region.
The capacity for civil society in the region to advocate, influence and enact change, however, differs from one country or territory to another. Spaces for CSOs to engage in a two-way dialogue with the government remain limited in number and focused on select policy issues. Notably, the enabling environment for CSOs to operate must contend with limited regulatory frameworks protecting freedom of association, uncertainty in terms of their financial sustainability and potential instances of interference or limited spaces to contribute to the policymaking cycle (Civicus, 2022[40]). Addressing these factors is essential to protecting and promoting a healthy civic space in the region, which over the last years has been curtailed, according to actors such as Civicus (2022[40]; OECD, 2022[39]). In fact, CSO participation has remained limited with similar levels to those in 2012 in most countries and territories of the region, namely in terms of the degree to which these actors are consulted by policymakers and involved in public decision-making processes, as highlighted in Figure 5.7.
Scores of select MENA countries and territories in the Civil Society Participation Index between 2012 and 2023
Note: Scale constitutes intervals, from low to high (0-1).
Source: Author’s work based on (V-DEM, 2024[41]).
Empowering these actors with the right resources and promoting meaningful spaces for engaging with the government could support more relevant and inclusive policymaking. In this regard, a conducive legal framework guaranteeing freedom of association is a crucial part of the enabling environment for civil society. The legal framework regulating CSOs registration and operation, including administrative obligations, needs to be predictable and transparent for civil society actors to work effectively without fearing political interference (OECD, 2022[39]). Similarly, facilitating transparency and access to public and foreigner funding, as well as supporting associations in exploring other funding opportunities, is another important lever to support the sustainability of the civil society sector and its contribution to a more inclusive society. In addition, other type of support could be considered, such as specific tax exemptions, while ensuring that the access to these exemptions is transparent, clear, and based on objective criteria. Finally, trainings and capacity-building could be considered to strengthen evidence-based advocacy work.
As MENA governments are stepping up their efforts to digitalise the administration, as presented in Chapter 4, ensuring that this process translate into more equitable and inclusive society is key. The OECD Recommendation on Open Government recognises that digitalisation can constitute a lever for open government and calls governments to “seize the opportunities provided by digital government tools, including through the use of open government data, to support the achievement of the objectives of open government strategies and initiatives” (2017[1]). At the same time, it is essential to ensure that the integration of digital technologies in the public sector and public service delivery does not become an exclusionary factor by guaranteeing the necessary infrastructure and digital literacy of all categories of the population. In parallel, equality and non-discrimination represent a precondition to open societies, and open government policies cannot be effective if capacity of part of the population to engage in public life is hindered by socio-economic factors.
This section explores how MENA governments can leverage the potential of digitalisation for open government while establishing the framework and practices needed to ensure policymaking processes are inclusive of all parts of society.
Twinning digitalisation with openness to bring governments closer to citizens
As outlined in Chapter 4, the use of digital government strategies and tools can significantly improve all stages of policymaking and facilitate stakeholder’s participation through more agile, effective and convenient public engagement. The OECD Recommendation on Digital Government Strategies (2014[42]) stresses the public value of modernising government through digital and electronic transformation and the need for a paradigm shift from e-government (i.e. the use by governments of ICTs as a tool to achieve better government) to digital government (i.e. the use of digital technologies as an integrated part of modernisation strategies to create public value), which implies critical dimensions such as “digital-by-design” and “open-by-default” approaches. This presumes a proactive, data- and user-driven public sector (OECD, 2020[43]).
Persistent digital divides must however be properly addressed in order to avoid the emergence of new forms of digital exclusion. They reflect the fact that societies consist of people who do and people who do not have access to – and the capability to use – digital technologies. Among the many inequalities exposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, the digital divide has emerged as a factor threatening the inclusiveness and effectiveness of public governance reforms in many countries (OECD, 2021[29]). It is therefore paramount for governments to address communication inequalities, technological divides and improve Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) literacy in society. In doing so, involving citizens and civil society in developing, securing and implementing reforms is imperative, and all relevant voices must be heard – including those from those least equipped to engage, because of lack of awareness, low participation literacy, information overload, low interest in politics, cultural, language, physical disability or geographical barriers (OECD, 2022[39]).
In the MENA region as well, ensuring the digital transformation delivers results for all citizens is an essential component underpinning the effective functioning of open and inclusive societies. Notably, the acceleration of political, social and economic activity online is providing new opportunities to “exercise civic rights, support mass mobilisation and facilitate more dynamic and inclusive participation” through what is also referred to as the “online civic space” (OECD, 2022[39]). In today’s fast-paced digital age, ensuring a transition from e-government to digital government will be fundamental for public administrations to ensure all groups in society benefit from the digital dividends and can take active part in public life (Figure 5.8).
Source: Author’s work based on (OECD, 2014[42]).
In the MENA region, significant progress has been made in e-government and open data. The E-Government Development Index confirms the progress made by many MENA governments in developing Open Government Data (OGD) portals and adopting participation at different levels. Several of them score above world average, although some others remain far below. Gulf countries are at the forefront of these reforms, as testified by the UN E-Government Development Index (see Figure 5.9). Countries such as UAE, for instance, are characterised by mature government technology capacity and a track record of important achievements (OECD, 2017[25]). Another example is the experience of Tunisia, which has progressively integrated openness in its digital government agenda. Its national e-government strategy “SmartGov2020” specifies the establishment of an open data framework that promotes transparency and reuse and the establishment of a citizen participation framework that fosters participatory democracy as key orientations – towards the goal of having “better informed citizens [who are] more active in public life, and communicate more easily with their administrations, through intelligent and enhanced use of digital technology” (OECD, 2020[43]).
Evolution of E-Government Development Index in select MENA governments, 2018, 2020 and 2022
Source: Author’s work based on (UN E-government Database, n.d.[44]).
Acknowledging such important disparities, basic infrastructure has been established in the region, digital connectivity has been diffused, and ICTs are being increasingly deployed for more efficient services. E-government policies have made the processing of administrative procedures more agile. This has translated into better accessibility for all, thanks to more co-ordinated and coherent e-government strategies. Most MENA governments have developed online services, e-government applications and e-government portals (see Table 5.3), which could further facilitate enhanced open government and participation, also for more entrepreneurial private sector activities. They have simplified access to those services by developing one-stop-shops for digital services or centrally available lists that define all services by the public sector. Box 5.11 illustrates some e-government good practices of countries and territories in the region, which are increasingly aware of the importance of opening government and better engaging with citizens.
Oman has developed an e-voting system for the elections of the Shura (Consultative Assembly) and local councils (11 governorates), which take place every four years. The system allows political candidates to submit their applications online. Electors can also register and vote through online polling stations or mobile applications. The identity of candidates and voters is verified through their national registration system with biometric authentication. The system has benefited from the deployment of the national public key digital infrastructure in Oman, with digital identity (eID), mobile identity (mID) and digital signature, connected to 77 electronic e-government services.
As a part of its 2020-2030 Digital Transformation Strategy, Lebanon is developing several digital innovations such as a unified e-government platform for commercial registry and formalities; a courts automation project; an e-learning project for civil servants; and an e-procurement platform for public entities. Additional initiatives include a unified database for all public sector planning students; an e-appointment mechanism for the senior vacant positions in the Lebanese public administration; as well as a sectoral and organisational performance measurement and inspection programme for civil servants.
Qatar was the first country in the world to implement a generalised electronic patient medical record in 2016. 90% of the country’s population are now offered this instrument. The Clinical Information System connects hospitals, primary health care centres, physicians and laboratories and enables them to quickly retrieve all information on patient health records.
In the UAE, several flagship e-government portals (such as “Smart Dubai”, “Smart Abu Dhabi” and others) provide all public services and administrative documents interactions through mobile phones application mainly. Users are offered quick access to information without the need to visit government entities or their websites. The UAE also launched electronic ID cards, carrying biometric details for the whole population, nationals and residents, as well as “smart pass” to access e-government services and a “UAE Pass App” with similar functions and secure digital signature on smartphones.
In Egypt, the “Digital Egypt e-Platform” enables people to access public services online. More than 168 digital government services are being provided, with the project to expand to other governorates. Several e-services were developed and launched for a number of entities, including law enforcement, notarisation, personal status, family courts, electricity, agriculture, traffic, real estate registration, etc.
In Kuwait, all residents have smart civil ID cards that are designed to allow citizens of all Gulf Cooperation Countries to travel freely between member states. These ID cards serve as an ID document in the format of a credit card, allowing cardholders to access digital government services and perform transactions securely. The Public Authority for Civil Information manages a secure data exchange highway, allowing people, the government and companies to share data securely and verify the identity of the other party.
Strong units that coordinate effectively the digital transformation of the public sector and have the necessary levers to consolidate these strategies are missing in most MENA governments and differences can be observed even among well performing countries. In most MENA countries and territories, the regulatory framework for open government has moreover remained incomplete, rather fragmented and in some cases outdated. Achievements in some areas (such as the access to information legal bases discussed above) contrast against limited improvements in others, possibly because the lack of consistent leadership and strategic coherence that may be compromising a more rapid transformation. At the same time, these gaps complicate enforcement and reduce possibilities for good practice sharing and innovation.
Making use of digital tools to support a more open government implies a new paradigm of governance for the MENA region. Digitalisation is a mean to move towards an open government. MENA governments need to see citizens not only as “users” of public services, but to consider them as actors that fully participate in all spheres of public life and can make valuable contributions to finding policy solutions to their challenges (OECD, 2020[46]). A new generation of open government initiatives (OpenGov 2.0), including a stronger focus on improving citizens’ living conditions, is permeating a range of policy areas and requires the executive to have a structured approach for an effective implementation of this agenda. More than ever, a “whole-of-government” approach is needed to respond to the cross-cutting challenges to attain inclusive and sustainable development in the MENA region.
Additionally, in order to strengthen data governance, MENA governments should address existing gaps in regard to interoperability, duplication of efforts and fragmentation of the public sector. Box 5.12 illustrates various practices in OECD Member countries that have aided in the development of institutional capacities and skills to promote the availability, use and reuse of public data.
The OECD Digital Government Index (DGI) benchmarks the progress of digital government reforms across OECD Member and key partner countries. The data-driven public sector dimension is one of the six dimensions that compose the DGI, and it measures the extent to which governments have adopted and implemented a data governance approach to secure the effective management of data across public sector organisations. Many countries still lack a strategic and coherent whole-of-government approach to the development of a data-driven public sector. In 2019, only Canada, Denmark, Greece and the United Kingdom had a single dedicated public sector data policy. In contrast, 23 out of 29 (80%) surveyed OECD Member countries reported their approach to public sector data was divided across one or more related policies, such as digital government or open government data. Only seven OECD countries (Denmark, France, Israel, Japan, Korea, the Netherlands and New Zealand) have both a co-ordinating body and a dedicated leadership role (e.g. Chief Information Officer) to lead the development of a data-driven public sector.
Source: (OECD, 2021[47]).
Governments in MENA could further reflect on potential avenues to promote skills assessments across the public sector and develop human resources strategies that help develop, attract and retain data skills across the public sector. In addition, training and capacity-building to make public servants responsive to engagement is necessary, particularly in administrations that have not been exposed to extensive public participation. Capacities can also be supported by the development of standards and guidelines for public sector data use, management and sharing. These efforts could build on the OECD Recommendation on Enhancing Access to and Sharing of Data which provide governments with a series of provisions to enhance data governance in the public sector (OECD, 2021[48]).
Ensuring diverse perspectives are included in policymaking to support more responsive policies and services
Evidence from experiences in OECD Member countries suggests that promoting inclusive policymaking processes can help design policies and services that meet the diverse needs and interests in society, creating better opportunities for all, addressing systemic inequalities – such as gender or intergenerational inequalities – and ultimately promoting societal resilience and prosperity. At the same time, groups such as women and young people face specific obstacles to participating in social, economic and public life. For instance, women, particularly in the MENA region, enjoy less job security and are over-represented in part-time and informal employment compared to men (OECD, 2020[10]). The MENA region is also marked by one of the highest youth unemployment rates in the world (OECD, 2022[49]). Women and young people also face specific barriers in accessing politics and public life in the region, for instance in terms of discriminatory social norms and legal barriers, as well as lack of party support for women and young candidates (OECD/CAWTAR, 2014[50]).
The OECD Recommendation on Gender Equality in Public Life (2016[51]) and the OECD Recommendation on Creating Better Opportunities for Young People (2022[52]) provide governments with policy guidelines and international standards to support their reform efforts on ensuring inclusive policy outcomes for women and young people. The OECD Recommendation on Regulatory Policy and Governance (2012[53]) and the OECD Recommendation on Open Government (2017[1]) also underline pathways to include perspectives from vulnerable and underrepresented groups in government action.
Implementing policies and delivering services for specific groups in society requires action across a wide range of policy areas. Evidence-based, transparent, participatory, inclusive, cross-sectoral and budgeted government strategies can unite institutional stakeholders behind a joint vision and promote responsive policy outcomes (OECD, 2022[52]). Policymakers can also proactively take youth and gender perspectives into account by applying public management tools in the policy cycle, for instance within the national budget cycle (e.g. gender budgeting practices) and in regulatory policy (e.g. through ex-ante regulatory impact assessments) (OECD, 2021[54]; OECD, 2022[52]). In addition, governments can take targeted action to encourage the participation and representation of young people and women in public and political life, for instance through awareness-raising and civic literacy activities, review of legal barriers and requirements, targeted and inclusive stakeholder consultation processes, and the establishment of dedicated advisory bodies (OECD, 2022[52]). Encouraging gender-balanced representation in public life also requires tackling stereotypes and sociocultural norms. This sub-section explores how governments in the MENA region can strengthen governance arrangements to promote youth empowerment, gender equality and inclusiveness in policymaking.
Young people at the centre of government action
In the MENA region, people under the age of 30 constitute 55% of the population, representing significant potential for inclusive growth. At the same time, youth unemployment rates are among the highest in the world, young people tend to express low trust in public institutions and nearly four in ten live in fragile and conflict-afflicted areas (OECD, 2022[49]). These challenges underscore the need to strengthen governance arrangements to ensure co-ordinated government action across the whole of government to promote better opportunities for young people and to mainstream their needs in policymaking.
Strengthening governance arrangements for youth empowerment
Promoting youth inclusion in social, economic and public life requires government action across numerous policy areas, such as employment, participation in public life, education and health. Ensuring whole-of-government co-ordination is hence necessary to promote better opportunities for young people. National youth strategies are a particularly useful tool to promote cross-sectoral approaches and unite stakeholders behind a common vision. As evidenced in the OECD report “Youth at the Centre of Government Action: A Review of the Middle East and North Africa”, at least seven governments in the MENA region have adopted national youth strategies (Figure 5.10), oftentimes including commitments and actions on youth participation in decision-making, similar to OECD Member countries (Figure 5.11) (OECD, 2022[49]).
Governments in the MENA region with a National Youth Strategy (NYS) or elaborating one as of 2022
Source: (OECD, 2022[49]).
Thematic areas addressed in select OECD and MENA national youth strategies, 2022
Note: OECD refers to 25 OECD Member countries. MENA refers to Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Mauritania, Palestinian Authority, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia and United Arab Emirates.
Source: (OECD, 2022[49]).
At the same time, there remains a need for more participatory approaches in the design and implementation of the strategies and for stronger arrangements to monitor implementation and evaluate impact. In addition, national youth strategies (and government action more widely) require data and evidence disaggregated by age and other relevant factors in order to understand the situation and needs of young people, design adequate policy objectives and measures, track implementation and assess impact. OECD evidence suggests that there remain significant gaps in the availability of age-disaggregated data, notably in policy areas other than employment and education. These pitfalls for MENA governments are common also among OECD Member countries, where only 20% of national youth strategies have emerged as fully participatory, budgeted and monitored and evaluated (OECD, 2020[55]).
Gathering age-disaggregated data, co-ordinating across ministries, designing and implementing youth strategies and delivering services all require a lead institution with a clear mandate and adequate capacities. Most MENA governments have a ministry of youth in place, often combined with other portfolios, notably sports. However, these entities oftentimes lack sufficient institutional and administrative capacities at national and sub-national levels. For instance, in the majority of MENA governments for which information is available, the budget allocated to the ministry in charge of youth affairs remains at 1% of the total government budget, or below (OECD, 2022[49]).
Additionally, youth representation in the public workforce can help bring new skills and competences, inform policy solutions with diverse policy perspectives and ensure adequate institutional capacities. OECD evidence also finds that the share of young people working in ministries of youth varies widely across the MENA region, from more than 80% in the UAE to less than 10% in Morocco. According to OECD survey results, governments in Egypt, Mauritania, Morocco, the Palestinian Authority and the UAE have put in place internships and training programmes to attract, develop and retain young talents in the public sector (OECD, 2022[49]). MENA governments can ensure that public recruitment systems and assessment methodologies keep pace with changing skills and competency requirements as well as changing aspirations. They can also consider the creation of dedicated graduate programmes to promote the representation of young people in the public sector workforce, while ensuring the administration is able to benefit from new talent and diverse perspectives.
Enhancing youth participation and representation in public life
Promoting the participation and representation of young people in public and political life can strengthen their relationship with institutions and inform the policymaking process with innovative and diverse policy solutions. However, the participation of young people in public life and their representation in public institutions remains limited in the region: for instance, people aged under 40 represent only 16% of members of parliament in the MENA region on average compared to 23% across OECD Member countries, most of which have a significantly older population (OECD, 2022[49]).
Barriers to youth participation include age-based stereotypes, lack of interest in politics, complicated voter registrations rules and minimum age requirements, among others. For instance, most administrations in the MENA region set the voting at 18 years of age, similar to OECD Member countries. However, the age to run for public office varies more significantly across the MENA region, from 18 years of age to 35 years of age, compared to an average of 19.8 years across OECD governments (OECD, 2022[49]). Governments could consider lowering age requirements, as recently done by Jordan, where candidacy age was reduced from 30 to 25 years. Egypt, Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia have also introduced youth quotas in their constitutions or electoral laws to promote youth representation. For example, according to Morocco’s 2011 electoral law, 30 seats shall be reserved for candidates under the age of 40, and 60 seats shall be reserved for women in the national parliament (OECD, 2022[49]).
While young people’s participation and representation in institutional channels remains limited in the MENA region, they tend to participate in the public debate through non-institutionalised channels and contribute to community life, including through civil society and volunteering activities, both online and offline. Public authorities can thus take proactive steps to ensure targeted public communication and involvement channels, including as part of broader open government initiatives (e.g as part of national action plans to advance the open government agenda), and through formal institutions and mechanisms at all levels. MENA governments have taken steps to promote young people’s participation in public life, including through civic and citizenship literacy programmes, targeted public communication and through youth centres/houses (see Box 5.13).
Civic and citizenship education
In Jordan, since 2013, the programme “Ana Usharek” (“I Participate”), organised by the National Democratic Institute (NDI), supports young people in applying democratic methods and engaging in community action. It targets university students through dialogue and debates to learn among young people as well as with politicians about democratic practices and principles, political and electoral systems, local and national governance, human rights, positive communication, citizenship, and gender. As of June 2021, over 10,500 students from 350 schools had participated in these classes.
Public communication via digital means
In the United Arab Emirates, the Federal Youth Authority shares a newsletter on a weekly basis with over 50,000 subscribers and has active social media accounts on Facebook, Instagram, TikTok and Twitter. In Jordan, Tunisia and Morocco, an increasing number of ministries and politicians communicate to citizens and young people through social media accounts on Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and Instagram. For instance, in Tunisia, the ministry in charge of youth affairs has a website and a Facebook page posting regular updates.
Youth centres and youth houses
Youth houses or youth centres provide another institutional framework for young people to develop active citizenship and participate in public and political life. In Morocco, a network of around 510 youth houses exists to support the capacities of registered youth organisations and encourage the social inclusion and participation of young people in local sport, cultural and leisure activities. In Jordan, the Ministry of Youth oversees the infrastructure and work of 190 youth centres (106 for young men and 84 for young women) and 355 youth clubs. There are currently over 350 youth houses in Tunisia, managed by the Ministry of Youth and Sports. In the United Arab Emirates, the government has supported the reconversion of older youth centres into Youth Hubs, multi-function centres for young entrepreneurs and artists to connect, exchange and work together.
Source: (OECD, 2022[49]).
Governments can also partner with youth organisations to strengthen societal resilience as well as engage young people through youth councils and deliberative processes. As of August 2024, available evidence suggests that Tunisia, Egypt, Jordan, Mauritania and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) have an operational national youth council in place, while Morocco is in the process of establishing one; similarly, 78% of OECD Member countries had a national youth council as of 2020. In addition, youth councils at the local level exist in Lebanon, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia, the West Bank and Gaza Strip and the UAE, similarly to 88% of OECD Member countries (OECD, 2022[49]; OECD, 2020[55]). If they are inclusive in their approach, youth councils can help address the lack of co-ordination among non-governmental youth stakeholders and mainstream young people’s voices in policymaking.
National youth councils (NYC) in select MENA governments, 2024
Source: Author’s work based on (OECD, 2022[49]).
More broadly, participatory exercises should be inclusive in terms of groups involved (e.g. underrepresented and marginalised young people), but also in terms of their design such that they take into account specific needs (OECD, 2021[54]). Box 5.14 presents a number of mechanisms and practices implemented in OECD Member countries to engage young people.
Participation of youth organisations in planning COVID-19 recovery measures
In Australia, Austria, Estonia, Lithuania and the Slovak Republic, public consultations included youth organisations as key stakeholders. In Austria, each measure proposed by civil society organisations, including youth organisations, was displayed in a table which included a pillar on young people and future generations. In Australia, a list of youth organisations that provided feedback on the 2021-2022 Budget priorities is publicly available, and non-confidential submissions, including those of youth organisations, were transparent and accessible online. Estonia included its National Youth Council as a key partner in the consultation that led to the creation of its response and recovery plan.
Youth parliaments
In Luxembourg, the Parliament for Youth is an assembly composed by youth and working for youth. Every person aged 14-24 living in Luxembourg can be a member. A parliamentary session lasts from October to the following October. The Parliament for Youth is composed of commissions and an executive board. Since its creation, it has published resolutions on a variety of policy areas including waste management, European affairs and the quality of life. It also holds regular meetings with government officials. The Youth Parliament’s main partners are the National Youth Council of Luxembourg (CGJL – de Jugendrot), the Ministry of National Education, Children and Youth as well as the Chamber of Deputies.
Youth councils
Youth councils can help address the lack of co-ordination among non-governmental youth stakeholders and help mainstream young people’s voices in policymaking. Among OECD Member countries, 78% report youth councils are in place at the national level and 88% at the sub-national level. Considerable differences exist with regard to their institutional architecture. For instance, in the Netherlands, the government recognises the Dutch Youth Council as the main national partner on youth affairs in the country, involving it through thematic working groups. In Estonia, the National Youth Council participated in the elaboration of the country’s long-term development strategy, Estonia 2035. In some Member OECD countries, such as Finland, Luxembourg and Slovenia, youth laws also feature provisions on the status and functions of the National Youth Council, including membership conditions and responsibilities, among others.
Youth advisory councils affiliated to government
In France, the Youth Policy Advisory Council, created in 2016, acts as administrative advisory committee to the Prime Minister´s Office, and is responsible for creating coherent and transversal public policies concerning young people. It may be consulted on legislative proposals of relevance to young people, and can examine any question of general interest in the field of youth policy.
Deliberative processes targeting young people
The Barcelona Youth Forum (Fòrum Jove BCN 2021) was a representative deliberative process that convened 99 randomly selected people living in Barcelona aged 16-29 to deliberate about the needs of young people in Barcelona and what the city council could do to help them in their development. They deliberated for five months and issued 22 recommendations in December 2021. In February 2022, representatives from the youth forum and city officials met at the Barcelona town hall for a public event in which the mayor explained the next steps regarding their proposals. The city hall also published a response for each recommendation in March 2022, accepting 18, confirming 2 were already in progress and rejecting 2 with rationale provided. Additionally, a commission with representatives from the forum was established to follow up and evaluate the uptake of the recommendations.
Volunteering can also support young people’s empowerment, by fostering their skills and their civic engagement, while also help building societal resilience. However, only 20% of young people across the MENA region reported volunteering in 2018, similarly to findings for OECD Member countries (21% in 2022). OECD analysis finds that countries and territories with national youth volunteering programmes in place also report higher rates of youth volunteering (OECD, 2020[55]). In fact, at least 16 OECD Member countries, including for instance Italy, France and the Netherlands, have put in place a national youth volunteering programme. Similarly, all MENA administrations that participated in the OECD Youth Governance Survey reported running programmes or activities for young people to volunteer (OECD, 2022[49]). Enabling a common vision for the volunteering sector, setting clear responsibilities and ensuring adequate resources can help strengthen meaningful youth volunteering service, hence encouraging their civic engagement and participation.
Young people interact with all levels of government, but their first interaction often takes place at the sub-national level, where important services and programmes are delivered in most countries and territories. The needs of young people at the local level are often very different from one region to another, and expectations may differ from those aggregated nationally. However, most MENA governments are historically highly centralised, with local government expenditure representing about 5% of GDP on average across the MENA region (Kherigi, 2019[58]), compared to about 16% of GDP on average across OECD Member countries (OECD, 2020[59]). Prompted in part by the need to bring policies and services closer to people and to address regional disparities and lack of public services outside large cities, some MENA governments have engaged in recent years in a process of decentralisation (e.g. Jordan and Tunisia) or regionalisation (Morocco) (OECD, 2022[49]). This has implications for youth policies, strategies and responses to the needs of young people. Effective co-ordination of youth policies and initiatives between the national and sub-national governments is therefore crucial, requiring clear distribution of responsibilities, adequate financial and human capacities and strong co-ordination mechanisms.
Towards more gender equality
Alongside the deployment of ambitious public governance reforms in the MENA region, important progress has been made in relation to advancing gender equality. Overall, gender issues have gained significant momentum throughout the last decade.
Setting constitutional, legal and institutional frameworks promoting gender equality
Major constitutional and legal changes have been introduced by some countries and territories while in others progress has been more incremental. Most MENA countries and territories have ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), albeit with reservations in most cases. This is a flagship instrument that provides the needed framework for the design of laws and policies that ensure gender justice. All Arab governments have developed institutional mechanisms for the advancement of gender equality, notably through the establishment of a central gender institution (CGI), in response to national reform developments, and in line with the Beijing Platform for Action. Additionally, many CSOs that are actively working on the promotion of women’s rights are important partners in strengthening gender justice.
The Arab uprisings resulted in new constitutions in some MENA countries and territories, as well as in constitutional reforms and legislation in others, that have enshrined women’s rights and provided better protection from gender-based violence and discrimination. Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia stipulate in their constitutional provisions that the government should take an active role in working towards the realisation of parity between the sexes, including by establishing independent commissions for the promotion and enforcement of these rights. In other MENA countries and territories, constitutional provisions on equality of all citizens in their rights and duties without including gender have been made more explicit (UN ESCWA, 2017[60]).
Gender justice is promoted also at the legislative level. The labour codes of Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia include generic non-discrimination provisions, and those of Egypt and Morocco also explicitly prohibit wage discrimination based on gender. Governments are implementing initiatives to address the gender pay gap. Yet, only Morocco and Jordan give full legislative expression to the principle of “equal remuneration for work of equal value” in line with the International Labour Organisation (ILO) Equal Remuneration Convention. In Jordan, the labour code has been amended so that employers who apply discriminatory wages for work of equal value can be fined (OECD/ILO/CAWTAR, 2020[61]). In the UAE, the labour law was modified in 2019 and the actual version included many gender provisions: the new law prohibits termination of women’s contract because of pregnancy. It also revokes all restrictions on women working at night, in a broad and subjective category of jobs deemed hazardous, arduous, or morally or socially inappropriate, as well as women working in the mining, construction, manufacturing, energy, water and agriculture and transportation sectors (UAE Gender Balance Council, n.d.[62]). Six MENA governments – Bahrain, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia – have adopted standalone domestic violence laws, with diverse provisions covering prosecution and punishment as well as prevention (UNDP, 2019[63]).
Strengthening the engagement of women in public life in practice
As discussed previously, several barriers continue to impede women and young people’s access to politics and public life. The consolidation of women´s engagement in public life requires reaching gender-balanced representation and effective participation in decision-making positions across public institutions, namely across the legislative, executive and judiciary branches of government.
Following the Arab uprisings, women’s representation in public and political lives increased in the MENA region. The share of women parliamentarians in the region reaches around 15.5% as of 2024 (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2024[64]). While a significant increase, this figure was significantly lower than that in OECD Member countries as of 2019 (33.3%), and the lowest compared to other regions in the world (see Figure 5.13) (OECD, 2019[65]). Intra-regional differences among countries and territories also persist. While in the UAE, there is gender parity in parliament, in four other countries in the region, women represent less than 5% of the lower house members: Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Yemen (0%) and Qatar (4.4%) (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2024[64]).
Note: MENA covers the following: Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. The average takes into account both lower and upper chambers for bi-cameral parliaments (Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia)
Source: Author’s work based on (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2024[64]).
Women’s representation also needs to be strengthened in the executive and the judiciary. The percentage of women ministers in MENA governments increased throughout the years, but remains low. As of 1 January 2023, the average share of women in ministerial positions in the region was 14.5%, while the OECD average for the same year stood at 35.7% (IPU, UN Women, 2023[66]). As a global trend, women ministers are generally entrusted with allegedly “soft” portfolios, traditionally associated with the gender roles of women in society (e.g., women and gender equality, family and children affairs, social affairs, education and health care) (IPU, UN Women, 2023[66]). In 2020, women heads of government departments in the MENA region were four times more likely to be found in sectors such as care and sociocultural ministries (Khurma, 2020[67]). Very few women have been appointed in other policy areas, such as interior or finance ministries. Statistics about the proportion of women active in the judiciary are limited. Data from Tunisia and Morocco indicate an increase from 28% to 39 % and from 20% to 24 % between 2010 and 2017 respectively (UN ESCWA, 2017[60]).
Taking note of the slow progress in this regard, several governments in the region are undertaking targeted efforts to improve women’s representation in public decision-making. One of the most commonly used measures to this end is the use of quotas, with at least eight countries and territories in the region having implemented it, Egypt being the most recent one. Some of the other measures and initiatives undertaken by governments in the MENA region are highlighted in Box 5.15.
Quotas and targets
Quotas and targets can be powerful tools to increase women’s representation and participation in decision-making positions.
In Tunisia, a legislated candidate quota for national elections was implemented in 2011. This measure was strengthened in 2014, when the parliament included a requirement that lists must alternate between women and men candidates. As a result, the share of women parliamentarians increased to 31% in 2014 and 36% in 2018. Building on this approach at the national level, the Tunisian parliament also revised the electoral legal framework to apply a legislated candidate quota to local-level elections, asking parties respect both vertical and horizontal parity for local-level elections. According to the law, non-compliant lists are automatically rejected for local-level elections. This quota system allowed women to win 47% of all seats in the 2018 local elections. However, women lost 25 seats in the 2019 parliamentary elections, compared to 2014. This decrease may be attributed, inter alia, to the election of a more fractious parliament. The new electoral law adopted in September 2022 eliminated the gender parity principle for legislative elections. As a result, only 25 women were elected in the 2023 parliamentary elections, representing 16.2 % of the total seats.
In Djibouti, a quota for both sexes is foreseen in the law, which requires at least 10% of both women and men in senior public positions.
Observatory on Gender in the Civil Service
In Morocco, the objective of equality in the civil service is included in the job and skills frameworks, and institutional mechanisms have been developed specifically to enable women to access positions of responsibility in the Moroccan administration. To this end, the Observatory on Gender in the Civil Service (Observatoire Genre Dans La Fonction Publique) was created in 2016 with the aim of informing decision-makers on the evolution of the situation of women in the public service; ensure strategic monitoring and examine the obstacles to equality; produce indicators on the evolution of the situation of women in the public service in terms of leadership positions; and contribute to the development of public policies that enable women to advance in their career while maintaining a work-life balance.
Family-friendly measures
Access to maternity and family supports is key to enhance women’s participation in public life. In the United Arab Emirates, mothers working in the public sector are entitled to leave work for a period of two hours each day to breastfeed their child during the four months after the expiry of the maternity leave, which lasts 90 days in line with Article 53(2) of Law No. 11 of 2008 on Human Resources in the Federal Government.
Advancing representation through strategic frameworks
Developing and implementing strategies for effective gender equality and mainstreaming is an enabler for women’s equal participation. In Jordan, the National Strategy for Women 2021-2025 identifies four strategic goals, and the output area “More women and girls have equal opportunities to participate and lead in public life and the labour market, and to enjoy economic independence in a manner that allows them to freely make their own financial decisions” proposes interventions to improve women’s access to leadership positions in public sector and political life without discrimination, among others. Such interventions as part of a strategic framework have already been used in Jordan. As such, the National Strategy for Women 2013-2017 defined a target of 20% of women in the legal sphere and the judiciary, which was achieved by 2015.
Parliamentary Caucuses
Since 2013, the Women’s Parliamentary Caucus (or Forum) in the Jordanian House of Representatives has provided a cross-party platform for female Member of Parliament to unite on policies to promote gender equality and women’s greater inclusion in decision-making roles. So far, issues dealt with by the Jordanian Caucus have included: violence against women; rights of citizenship and nationality of Jordanian women and their children; empowering women politically and economically; defending human rights, individual and collective freedoms; and improving women’s image in the media.
Sources: (Nasser, 2018[68]; OECD/CAWTAR, 2014[50]; ESCWA, 2019[69]; OECD, n.d.[27]) and Information provided to the OECD by Government of Morocco.
In light of these challenges, governments in the region would benefit from taking stock of the persisting gaps and barriers in their respective national contexts to identify the most optimal way forward. This can be done through developing strategic frameworks to map the overall picture and employing measures such as networking and capacity-building, as well as programmes to support quality and affordable childcare and initiatives to tackle gender-based violence. Some of the reforms undertaken by OECD Member countries include measures to address barriers to elected office, targets or quotas for gender equality in recruitment in the civil service, standardised, confidential complaints procedures and voluntary in-service trainings for staff on sexual harassment. Overall, significant and sustained efforts could be pursued in this regard to attain gender balance at all levels of decision-making, notably through reducing stereotypes and changing the culture, including around availability and use of work-life balance arrangements for both women and men. Governments could also work to enhance transparency in selection, recruitment and promotion processes in public institutions (OECD, 2022[70]).
Embedding Open Government and its principles into public governance reforms at all levels of government
Pursuing the development of open government legal and policy frameworks at all levels, such as open government strategies or other types of broader policy frameworks, supported by strong institutional capacities and co-ordination mechanisms.
When possible, adopting a whole-of-government approach to open government, which should be coupled with protection and promotion of civic space as a key precondition for open government.
Further strengthening the use of open government tools and processes to promote a culture of openness across public administrations, including through adequate human and financial resources and the diversification of technical capacities.
Fostering the participation of a wide variety of stakeholders.
Promoting a sound media and information ecosystem.
Strengthening transparency and access to information
Developing awareness-raising campaigns for a more informed citizenry to make access to information requests.
Building capacities to strengthen knowledge and skills to implement the right to access information within the administration.
Leveraging transparency portals to provide up to date, clear and reliable information proactively.
Streamlining and enhancing proactive disclosure of information.
Fostering the development of digital and non-digital channels for access to information requests to ensure the most vulnerable segments of the population are able to consult key information.
Enhancing communication efforts to promote more effective and inclusive communication.
Better engaging citizens and stakeholders in public life
Pursuing the development of diverse stakeholder participation mechanisms, including:
Leveraging existing online platforms to allow for more direct consultations for policymaking with citizens and stakeholders.
Envisaging the integration of open government portals in the region.
When possible, promoting the establishment of formal policy frameworks for whole-of-government stakeholder participation that would consider specific needs throughout the whole public policy cycle.
Encouraging the development of an enabling environment for civil society engagement through adequate legal frameworks, support to access funding and training and capacity-building opportunities.
Reinforcing digitalisation and inclusive decision-making as drivers for more transparent and responsive governments and policies
Developing institutional capacities and skills across public sector to strengthen data governance.
Ensuring the engagement of all groups of citizens in policymaking to support more responsive policies and services, including through:
Pursuing efforts to strengthen legal, policy and institutional frameworks promoting youth participation and representation in public life.
Setting constitutional, legal and institutional frameworks promoting gender equality and women’s representation in decision-making.
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← 1. The OGP COVID-19 Open Government tracker (2021[71]) identified a series of good practices implemented in the MENA region to embed the principles of transparency, integrity, accountability and stakeholder participation across and beyond response and recovery measures. It identified respectively a total of 29 examples across Jordan (14), Morocco (9), the UAE (4) and Tunisia (2) led by stakeholders from government, civil society and academia together with citizens.
← 2. Stakeholder is defined by the OECD as any interested and/or affected party, including: individuals, regardless of their age, gender, religious and political affiliations; and institutions and organisations, whether governmental or non-governmental, from civil society, academia, the media or the private sector.
← 3. Official Hackathon website of the UAE, https://hackathon.ae/en/.
← 4. Morocco’s open government online interactive portal, https://www.gouvernement-ouvert.ma/co-creation.php?lang=ar.
← 5. The OECD defines civic space as the set of legal, policy, institutional, and practical conditions necessary for non-governmental actors to access information, express themselves, associate, organise, and participate in public life. The enabling environment for civil society to operate and thrive is a core element of the OECD civic space framework.