This chapter presents the change in science education teaching and learning practices aimed at developing student content and procedural knowledge: memorising rules and facts, using formulas, practising, watching teachers conducting an experiment and doing it oneself, etc. The change within countries is presented as an increase or decrease in the share of students exposed to the practice. The percentage point change is also expressed as a standardised effect size in the final table.
Measuring Innovation in Education 2019
What Has Changed in the Classroom?
Educational Research and Innovation
Chapter 3. Innovation in practices to develop technical skills in science
Abstract
The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.
6. Memorising rules, procedures and facts as a pedagogical technique in science
Why it matters
Memorising facts, rules and procedures is part of all learning strategies. Often associated to “traditional” and relatively “teacher-centred” approaches to teaching and learning, memorisation should be seen as part of the mix of pedagogical practices that teachers should use. Good teachers will find the right dosage with other, more active learning practices. An increase of these practices is often related to the existence of high-stakes exams or assessments in education systems.
Primary education
Change at the OECD level: moderate
OECD countries have increased the use of these memorisation exercises in 4th grade science lessons, from an average of 24% of students exposed to it in at least half their lessons in 2007 to 33% in 2015. Positive and negative trends together amount to an average absolute change of 10 percentage points, corresponding to a moderate effect size of 0.26. The frequency of its use varies significantly between countries. For instance, Northern Ireland had 7% of its 4th grade students regularly memorising rules, procedures and facts in their science lessons in 2015, against 76% in Lithuania.
Countries where there has been the most change
Lithuania stands out with an increase in the use of this learning technique by 29 percentage points between 2007 and 2015, trailed closely by Slovenia (25 percentage points). A few large declines in the use of this practice were also witnessed, especially in Turkey with a decrease of 32 percentage points between 2011 and 2015.
Secondary education
Change at the OECD level: moderate
Most OECD education systems have seen greater use of memorisation of rules, procedures and facts during 8th grade science lessons, resulting on an average increase of 15 percentage points in the share of students regularly exposed to it between 2007 and 2015. Regardless of the direction of innovation, the absolute change in the use of this pedagogical technique amounted to 15 percentage points as well, with a rather large effect size of 0.34. In 2015, the share of 8th grade students exposed to this learning practice in at least half their lessons ranged from 23% in Norway against 78% in Lithuania.
Countries where there has been the most change
Italy experienced the largest increase in the use of this learning technique in 8th grade science, of 42 percentage points. Moreover, strong positive changes of around 30 percentage points were also witnessed in Quebec (Canada) and Singapore. Only two negative changes in this practice were recorded, none of which was above 10 percentage points.
Figure 3.1. 4th grade students memorising rules, procedures and facts in science
Note: Darker tones correspond to statistically significant values.
* refers to calculations based on other years, based on data availability.
The OECD average is based on OECD countries with available data in 2007, 2011 and 2015
Source: Authors' calculations based on TIMSS Databases.
Figure 3.2. 8th grade students memorising rules, procedures and facts in science
Note: Darker tones correspond to statistically significant values.
* refers to calculations based on other years, based on data availability.
The OECD average is based on OECD countries with available data in 2007, 2011 and 2015
Source: Authors' calculations based on TIMSS Databases.
7. Using scientific formulas and laws to solve routine problems
Why it matters
In science, applying formulas and laws in the right way and for the appropriate problems is part of the technical knowledge students have to learn. Memorising the rules would mean nothing if they cannot apply them in simple problems. This practice is important for understanding the concepts learnt and should typically be considered as one tool among others in teachers’ “directed teaching” repertoire.
Change at the OECD level: moderate
In secondary education, this pedagogical practice spread in almost all OECD countries covered. Between 2007 and 2015, the percentage of students frequently asked to apply scientific formulas to routine problems rose by 13 percentage points on average. Only in New Zealand and Slovenia was there a small contraction. The mean change, be it positive or negative, reached 14 percentage points on average, corresponding to a moderate effect size of 0.31. The use of this pedagogical exercise widely varied across OECD education systems in 2015. For instance, this practice is very common in Korea, but rather unusual in Sweden.
Countries where there has been the most change
This practice has been an area of strong innovation in Hong Kong, China, Singapore and England with increases above 25 percentage points. Only three countries in the sample recorded negative changes, all of them below 5 percentage points.
Figure 3.3. 8th grade science students using formulas and laws to solve routine problems
Note: Darker tones correspond to statistically significant values.
* refers to calculations based on other years, based on data availability.
The OECD average is based on OECD countries with available data in 2007, 2011 and 2015.
Source: Authors' calculations based on TIMSS Databases.
8. Processing and analysing data on computers in science
Why it matters
Analysing scientific data on computers allows students to acquire both computer and scientific skills. While they have other tools at their disposal, most scientists now use computers to identify patterns in their observations or see if they fit a theory. While the use of computer could only involve computations, with pedagogical imagination much more could now easily be done to allow students to reason like scientists.
Change at the OECD level: moderate
The share of students systematically using computers to process and analyse data during 8th grade science lessons increased by 12 percentage points on average in OECD education systems between 2015 and 2007. The overall absolute change, regardless of change direction, amounted to 12 percentage points as well, corresponding to a moderate effect size of 0.34. This practice remains uncommon, with large disparities observed across systems: 7% of students were exposed to it in Lithuania against 44 in Turkey.
Countries where there has been the most change
Australia experienced the most innovation in this domain: the share of students exposed to the practice gained ground by 31 percentage points between 2007 and 2015. Similarly, Israel and the United States saw increases above 25 percentage points.
Figure 3.4. 8th grade science students processing and analysing data on computers
Note: Darker tones correspond to statistically significant values.
* refers to calculations based on other years, based on data availability.
The OECD average is based on OECD countries with available data in 2007, 2011 and 2015.
Source: Authors' calculations based on TIMSS Databases.
9. Practising skills and procedures on computers in science
Why it matters
Practice makes perfect. In science, the use of computers can allow students to repeat and apply the scientific knowledge they have learnt in class to multiple problems and contexts. The use of computers is compelling for such “drilling” activities, which is part of the understanding process. And it also develops computer skills.
Primary education
Change at the OECD level: large
At the OECD level, much greater use of computers for practising skills and procedures in 4th grade science lessons was observed. Between 2007 and 2015, the proportion of students regularly involved in this activity has increased by 15 percentage points on average. 15 percentage points stands also for the overall absolute change in the use this practice during this period, corresponding to a large effect size of 0.44. This computer-based practice is not very widespread among OECD systems. Only in Turkey and Italy were more than 50% of 4th grade students frequently learning this way during their science lessons in 2015.
Countries where there has been the most change
Change has taken the form of expansion in most of the education systems. This is particularly true for Italy (48 percentage points), the Netherlands (37 percentage points) and the Russian Federation (37 percentage points). Significant contraction happened observed in Portugal with a decline in this pedagogical practice by 28 percentage points (between 2011 and 215). A significant innovation in all these cases.
Secondary education
Change at the OECD level: large
The share of students frequently using computers for practising skills and procedures in 8th grade science lessons through has increased by 17 percentage points on average between 2007 and 2015. The absolute change taking into account increases and decreases was the same, corresponding to a large effect size of 0.48. Like in primary education, the use of this learning practice remains low. Only in Turkey were more than 50% of the students using it in 2015.
Countries where there has been the most change
Innovation has been large and corresponded to an expansion of this practice. Students in Quebec (Canada), Australia, Israel and the United States have experienced the most innovation in this domain, with expansions above 30 percentage points in each case.
Figure 3.5. 4th grade science students practising skills and procedures on computers
Note: Darker tones correspond to statistically significant values.
* refers to calculations based on other years, based on data availability.
The OECD average is based on OECD countries with available data in 2007, 2011 and 2015.
Source: Authors' calculations based on TIMSS Databases.
Figure 3.6. 8th grade science students practising skills and procedures on computers
Note: Darker tones correspond to statistically significant values.
* refers to calculations based on other years, based on data availability.
The OECD average is based on OECD countries with available data in 2007, 2011 and 2015.
Source: Authors' calculations based on TIMSS Databases.
10. Studying natural phenomena through computer simulations
Why it matters
Computer simulations allow students to work on phenomena that they could not necessarily study in their classroom or school lab, for example because they are dangerous for their health (radioactivity) or not available in their immediate environment. They can also be a good substitute for expensive observation material. Remote and virtual labs and relevant pedagogical resources are not widely available.
Primary education
Change at the OECD level: moderate
This practice expanded in most OECD systems. The share of students regularly using computer simulations increased by 8 percentage points on average between 2007 and 2015. The absolute change amounted to almost 9 percentage points, including positive and negative variations, corresponding to a moderate effect size of 0.32. Using computer simulations at the primary level remains uncommon. This activity is especially rare in Germany and Ireland where less than 4% students carried out simulations on a regular basis in 2015. In contrast, it is quite common in Turkey (52% of students do it weekly).
Countries where there has been the most change
The use of computer simulations to study natural phenomena has increased simultaneously in several countries. Italy stands out with a large increase of 30 percentage points. Increase has also been notable in the United States (over 15 percentage points). By contrast, Ireland and Chile saw a decreased use of this science education practice (8 percentage point contraction between 2011 and 2015).
Secondary education
Change at the OECD level: large
With the exception of Korea, all OECD systems made greater use of computer simulations to study natural phenomena in science lessons. The share of students frequently participating in this pedagogical activity rose by 12 percentage points on average between 2007 and 2015. Positive and negative variations resulted in a mean absolute change of 13 percentage points, that is, a large effect size of 0.43. The share of students regularly participating in these simulations remained low within OECD countries in 2015, but with relatively large differences between them, ranging from 7% of students in Norway to 48% in Turkey.
Countries where there has been the most change
Secondary schools innovated mainly by adopting this teaching practice. Notably Israel, Indonesia and the United States experienced expansions above 25 percentage points (the change being between 2007 and 2011 for Indonesia). Korea experienced the only observed contraction of the practice, which contracted by 9 percentage points.
Figure 3.7. 4th grade science students studying natural phenomena by computer simulations
Note: Darker tones correspond to statistically significant values.
* refers to calculations based on other years, based on data availability.
The OECD average is based on OECD countries with available data in 2007, 2011 and 2015.
Source: Authors' calculations based on TIMSS Databases.
Figure 3.8. 8th grade science students studying natural phenomena by computer simulations
Note: Darker tones correspond to statistically significant values.
* refers to calculations based on other years, based on data availability.
The OECD average is based on OECD countries with available data in 2007, 2011 and 2015.
Source: Authors' calculations based on TIMSS Databases.
11. Watching teachers demonstrate experiments
Why it matters
Watching teachers demonstrate an experiment or investigation should happen in a good science classroom. Imitation is an important way to learn, that should precede or balance (rather than substitute for) students trying by themselves to carry out an even design experiments – a more active way of learning.
Primary education
Change at the OECD level: large
The share of primary students watching their teachers demonstrating a experiment in at least half of their science lessons increased by 21 percentage points on average between 2007 and 2015. This increase represents a significant innovation, amounting to a large effect size of 0.54. The extent to which students are systematically exposed to this practice ranged from 7% in Belgium (Fl.) to 78% in Turkey in 2015.
Countries where there has been the most change
The direction of change is rather consistent with almost all education systems registering greater use of this teaching practice. Quebec (Canada) stands out with a large increase of about 38 percentage points, followed closely by Hungary and England recording around 35 percentage point increases. Poland also registered an increase of similar magnitude between 2011 and 2015 (instead of 2007-2015).
Secondary education
Change at the OECD level: moderate
This teaching practice is increasingly being used in secondary schools within OECD countries or systems. The average share of students regularly exposed to it has risen by 15 percentage points between 2007 and 2015. The magnitude of the change, including expansions and contractions, amounted to 16 percentage points and corresponded to a moderate effect size of 0.34. This teaching method is evenly used across countries, with medium and relatively large shares of students exposed to it.
Countries where there has been the most change
Innovation mainly took the form of a spread of this teaching practice, particularly in Hong Kong, China, Israel, Singapore and Australia where it gained ground by over 25 percentage points. Contractions never exceeded 10 percentage points, showing more stability in that direction.
Figure 3.9. 4th grade science students watching their teachers demonstrate an experiment
Note: Darker tones correspond to statistically significant values.
* refers to calculations based on other years, based on data availability.
The OECD average is based on OECD countries with available data in 2007, 2011 and 2015.
Source: Authors' calculations based on TIMSS Databases.
Figure 3.10. 8th grade science students watching their teachers demonstrate an experiment
Note: Darker tones correspond to statistically significant values.
* refers to calculations based on other years, based on data availability.
The OECD average is based on OECD countries with available data in 2007, 2011 and 2015.
Source: Authors' calculations based on TIMSS Databases.
12. Students conducting experiments and investigations
Why it matters
Conducting experiments and investigations gives students an entry point into the work life of scientists, and a better understanding of its empirical dimension. Depending on whether the conducted experiments and investigations have been designed by the students themselves, or are just an application of learnt science concepts, they can have more or less value to students’ learning. But conducting experiments and investigations in science is a valuable learning strategy.
Primary education
Change at the OECD level: moderate
With the exception of Chile, all OECD systems registered an increase in the share of students conducting experiments and investigations in at least half of their science lessons, from an average of 33% in 2007 to 46% in 2015. The average absolute change was of a similar magnitude, i.e. 13 percentage points, corresponding to a modest effect size of 0.3. Large cross-country disparities in the use of this pedagogical technique are observed, from only 11% of 4th grade students being regularly exposed to this pedagogy in the Netherlands in 2015, to 96% in Japan.
Countries where there has been the most change
Innovation took the form of the spread of this science learning method. Australia and Singapore saw increases of 31 and 28 percentage points respectively, closely followed by Poland and Norway (24 percentage points). No covered country registered a significant contraction of the practice between 2007 and 2015.
Secondary education
Change at the OECD level: moderate-low
Expansions have outweighed contractions of the practice in the OECD area, leading on average to a 5 percentage point increase in the share of students participating in these activities in half of their science classes or more. When increases and decreases are accounted for, innovation in this learning practice amounted to 11 percentage points between 2007 and 2015, corresponding to a moderate-low effect size of 0.24. Concerning about 45% of students on average in 2015, disparities marked OECD countries: from 17% of students in Lithuania through to almost 72% in Japan conducted experiments.
Countries where there has been the most change
Although the majority of countries saw an increase in this practice between 2007 and 2015, the direction of innovation was not fully consistent. Sweden and Quebec (Canada) saw considerable declines in the use of this pedagogy, of above 15 percentage points between 2007 and 2015. On the contrary, South Africa registered a large increase of 27 percentage points between 2011 and 2015, followed by Italy and Ontario (Canada) with respective increases of 19 and 18 percentage points during the 2007-2015 period.
Figure 3.11. 4th grade students conducting experiments and investigations in science
Note: Darker tones correspond to statistically significant values.
* refers to calculations based on other years, based on data availability.
The OECD average is based on OECD countries with available data in 2007, 2011 and 2015.
Source: Authors' calculations based on TIMSS Databases.
Figure 3.12. 8th grade students conducting experiments and investigations in science
Note: Darker tones correspond to statistically significant values.
* refers to calculations based on other years, based on data availability.
The OECD average is based on OECD countries with available data in 2007, 2011 and 2015.
Source: Authors' calculations based on TIMSS Databases.
13. Students doing practical experiments in laboratories
Why it matters
Science lessons sometimes take place in laboratories equipped for practical experiments. Doing practical experiments in laboratories is a critical activity of scientific reasoning and practice, which should ideally be balanced with experiments in real-life settings. Computers now also allow students and teachers to use remote or virtual labs, another way to expand the topics addressed by this widespread teaching practice.
Change at the OECD level: small
Doing practical experiments in laboratories became a more widespread practice in most OECD systems, with a 6-percentage point expansion on average between 2006 and 2015. Innovation has been modest in this area, with positive and negative changes amounting to 7 percentage points in the change of students’ exposure to this activity, representing a small effect size of 0.14. Doing practical experiments in all or most of the lessons is relatively common among the OECD countries covered: on average, 69% of students do it, with levels ranging from 44% in Korea to almost 84% in Portugal in 2015.
Countries where there has been the most change
In most countries these practical laboratory experiments expanded. Korea stands out with an increase of 21 percentage points, followed by the Slovak Republic (17 percentage points) and Hong Kong, China (16 percentage points). On the contrary, Israel and to a less extend Indonesia and Colombia registered declines of 19, 9 and 8 percentage points respectively.
Figure 3.13. 15 year old science students doing practical experiments in laboratories
Note: Darker tones correspond to statistically significant values.
Source: Authors' calculations based on PISA Databases.
Table 3.1. Effect sizes for changes in practices to develop technical skills in science
Effect size from -0.5 to -0.2 and from 0.2 and 0.5
Effect size from -0.8 to -0.5 and from 0.5 and 0.8
Effect size equals or less than -0.8 and equals or greater than 0.8
Source: Authors' calculations based on TIMSS (2007, 2011 and 2015) and PISA (2006, 2009 and 2015).
Table 3.2. Effect sizes for changes in ICT-based practices to develop technical skills in science
Effect size from -0.5 to -0.2 and from 0.2 and 0.5
Effect size from -0.8 to -0.5 and from 0.5 and 0.8
Effect size equals or less than -0.8 and equals or greater than 0.8
Source: Authors' calculations based on TIMSS (2007, 2011 and 2015) and PISA (2006, 2009 and 2015).