This chapter provides a comprehensive analysis of Uzbekistan’s public administration landscape, evaluating its effectiveness and modernisation efforts. By examining key aspects such as size, scope, agility, resilience, responsiveness, inclusiveness, and cross-cutting issues, the chapter assesses the current state and progress of public sector performance in Uzbekistan. Focusing on three main strategic documents - the Concept of Administrative Reform, the Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan, and Uzbekistan 2030 Strategy - the chapter then explores how Uzbekistan’s public administration reform (PAR) can enhance the capacity of public administration to successfully implement national priorities. It specifically focuses on successes and remaining challenges of delivering reform agendas, as well as institutional composition for PAR in Uzbekistan. The chapter concludes with recommendations to strengthen plans and institutional frameworks for more effective implementation of Uzbekistan’s PAR.
OECD Public Governance Reviews: Uzbekistan
Abstract
Uzbekistan has undergone a period of significant socio-economic advancement since 2017, characterised notably by its transition to a more open and competitive economy, reductions in poverty rates, and a concerted, high-level commitment towards the modernisation and reform of its governance systems (OECD, 2023[1]). As such, since 2018, Uzbekistan’s GDP growth has consistently outpaced the regional average, even in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic (Figure 1.1). Uzbekistan has experienced a significant decline in poverty levels, as evidenced by a decrease in the poverty headcount ratio from 8% in 2016 to less than 1% in 2023 (Figure 1.2), accompanied by a rise in the total income of the population (Statistics Agency under the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2024[2]). This transformative journey has been shaped by a succession of national strategic plans, each building upon the achievements of its predecessor while addressing emerging challenges head-on.
Source: (OECD, 2023[1]).
Note: International data reflective of general decreasing trend of share of low-income population reported by Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan (Statistics Agency, 2024[3]).
Source: Author’s elaboration based on (World Data Lab, 2023[4]).
Building on the momentum generated by the Action Strategy 2017-2021, the Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022-2026 emerged as a natural evolution in the country’s trajectory, emphasising economic diversification, equitable public policies, and the development of human capital, and reflecting Uzbekistan’s commitment to fostering inclusive growth and societal well-being (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2022[5]). This strategy placed a strong emphasis on the consolidation of justice and the rule of law, the establishment of a citizen-centred public administration and the promotion of civil society as cornerstones for Uzbekistan’s sustainable development. Looking forward, the current Uzbekistan 2030 Strategy (2030 Strategy) delineates a long-term national vision aimed at creating an enabling environment for realising its citizens’ potential, ensuring economic prosperity, and safeguarding environmental sustainability. The strategy prioritises citizen well-being achieved through socio-economic prosperity and the rule of law, underscoring the country’s aspirations to build a safe, prosperous, and harmonious society (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2023[6]).
Amidst these strides, Uzbekistan remains cognisant and committed to the need to address persistent challenges in areas such as public service delivery, socio-economic inequality, and regional disparities, to ensure that the benefits of its development are equitably distributed across society. Uzbekistan remains steadfast in its pursuit of inclusive growth, social inclusiveness, and equitable prosperity for its citizens and has adopted a strategic approach to navigate these challenges.
As outlined in 2030 Strategy, the country aims to establish a just and modern state, prioritising citizen welfare and driving sustainable socio-economic growth in the decade ahead. Central to this strategy are public administration reform (PAR) initiatives aimed at enhancing the efficiency of the public sector, streamlining regulations, and promoting greater public participation in governance processes. Effective public governance is crucial for ensuring the delivery of essential public services and promoting the overall well-being of citizens, providing a framework for responsive and inclusive decision-making processes that address the evolving needs of citizens. Efforts to strengthen the public sector have yielded tangible outcomes, evidenced by improvements in regulatory quality, the rule of law and government effectiveness. These initiatives reflect Uzbekistan’s commitment to fostering an efficient, accountable, and citizen-oriented governance practices, aligned with the goals of the 2030 Strategy.
This chapter provides an overview of the public administration landscape in Uzbekistan, assessing its effectiveness, strengths, and challenges, and how the country’s public administration reform objectives can effectively strengthen its capacity in support of 2030 Strategy. Uzbekistan’s public administration faces a number of challenges amid both domestic and global challenges to public governance, notably the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, slowing global economic and trade growth, and ongoing geopolitical tensions (OECD, 2023[7]). This Public Governance Review will examine how ongoing reforms within the framework of Uzbekistan’s public administration aim to navigate this complex environment and foster resilience in the face of evolving global dynamics.
The chapter will present a comparative analysis of Uzbekistan’s public sector effectiveness, leveraging key performance indicators to benchmark against OECD member countries and countries in the Central Asia region. The chapter will then analyse the current state of PAR initiatives in Uzbekistan, mapping the trajectory of recent and ongoing reform efforts since 2017, paying particularly attention to what has been successful in delivering reform agendas in the country. The chapter further examines the institutional landscape for PAR in Uzbekistan, identifying the key public agencies involved and their relevant mandates in delivering the strategic objectives of 2030 Strategy.
The following chapters in the PGR are structured around several public governance challenges that have been jointly identified with Uzbekistan and that can be transformative to reach the long-term goals outlined in 2030 Strategy.
Chapter 2 evaluates Uzbekistan’s capacity in strategic visioning, planning, co-ordination and performance management, focusing on its ability to implement the 2030 Strategy. It examines co-ordination mechanisms for strategy and policy implementation, including key performance indicators, to ensure alignment with strategic priorities. The chapter will also assess gender mainstreaming efforts in decision-making and compare them with OECD best practices, reviewing the institutional framework and co-ordination mechanisms for gender equality promotion.
Chapter 3 analyses Human Resource Management (HRM) policies in Uzbekistan, focusing on current and planned institutional arrangements. Guided by the OECD Recommendation on Public Service Leadership and Capability Recommendation, it assesses the role of ARGOS, the central body for HRM, in defining and implementing workforce management policies, with a specific emphasis on the new job classification system, the recruitment and training of public servants.
Chapter 4 explores the legal and institutional frameworks for public sector integrity, emphasising the responsibility of public sector organisations to manage integrity effectively. Providing guidance on strengthening these frameworks, the chapter aims to help build stronger institutions, enhance public sector integrity and improve policy outcomes.
Chapter 5 examines evidence-informed policymaking and regulatory quality in Uzbekistan’s public administration. It will assess the government’s utilisation of evidence, data and regulations, focusing particularly on regulatory impact assessments (RIAs) to improve economic and social outcomes for citizens and businesses. It aims to analyse and support current efforts to enhance data utilisation, reduce regulatory burdens, promote RIAs and improve regulatory quality, with comparisons drawn from peer countries to inform recommendations.
Modernising and enhancing the effectiveness of the public administration are crucial to the overall success of a government’s plans and policies. This requires a multi-pronged approach, including improving the quality, access and responsiveness of services provided by the state while simultaneously investing in skilled civil servants. Altogether, achieving more effective and inclusive public governance entails enhancing the capacity of public institutions and bolstering their responsiveness to citizens’ needs.
Governments currently find themselves navigating a system of increasingly complex and overlapping crises. Events such as the COVID-19 pandemic and Russia’s war of aggression in Ukraine have brought about immediate and urgent spillover effects on geopolitical stability and the global economy. Economic growth is projected to slow across OECD member countries as governments are confronted with high inflationary pressures and growing public debt. Uzbekistan faces similar economic trends – while the economy has experienced robust growth in the past, it is forecasted to slow down in 2024 and 2025 (Asian Development Bank, 2024[8]). Despite recent annual increases as in OECD member countries, Uzbekistan’s government has taken measures to keep total public debt below 60% of GDP, currently reaching 36.3% of GDP in 2023, compared to 23% in Kazakhstan and 27.8% in the wider Central Asia and Caucasus region (Asian Development Bank, 2024[8]); (IMF, 2024[9]). As the result of annual limits on fiscal deficits and a new public debt law enacted in May 2023, Uzbekistan’s external debt is predicted to fall by 10 percent in the next five years (IMF, 2024[10]). In parallel, governments must also address long-term challenges, particularly regarding climate change, sustainable development, and the digital transformation, that have an impact on the priorities and policies to be implemented by the public administration.
An effective public administration is pivotal in navigating these challenges, ensuring that public institutions remain citizen-oriented, equitable and efficient. However, the increasing prevalence of cross-cutting challenges poses a significant hurdle to the capacity of public administrations. Yet, these challenges can spur meaningful reforms that enhance public sector capacity, citizen accessibility, resilience to future crises and the integrity of public institutions. As the primary interface between governments and their citizenry, public administrations play a crucial role in meeting these challenges.
The strategic approach adopted by Uzbekistan in public administration reform reflects a steadfast commitment to sustainable development and inclusive growth. In recent years, Uzbekistan has prioritised strengthening its public sector, aiming to create a “just and modern state that serves the needs of its people” as outlined in the 2030 Strategy (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2023[6]). To achieve this, Uzbekistan has identified numerous objectives and actions for the years ahead to make the public administration more effective. This ambitious plan includes streamlining regulations, eliminating redundancies within government agencies, digitalising virtually all public services, as well as enhancing local governance and creating necessary conditions for public participation in the activities of public sector agencies.
Using key performance indicators on public governance, this section analyses Uzbekistan’s public sector effectiveness through benchmarking against OECD members and other selected countries across four dimensions:
Size and scope of government: this measures the government’s role in the economy and society.
Agility and resilience: this assesses the government’s ability to adapt to changing circumstances.
Responsiveness: this analyses the government’s ability to deliver public services that meet citizens’ needs.
Inclusiveness: this evaluates how effectively the government serves all citizens, including marginalised groups.
The section also briefly examines Uzbekistan’s capacity to address cross-cutting policy issues, particularly its climate commitments.
Uzbekistan has made efforts to enhance the effectiveness of its public sector, as evidenced by advancements across various governance dimensions.
Uzbekistan’s ongoing efforts to increase the effectiveness of its public sector are yielding positive results; yet there is still room for improvement, particularly regarding stability, transparency and citizen participation in decision-making processes. In recent years, the country has seen improvement across all six dimensions of governance measured by the World Bank’s Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGIs). These indicators provide an indication of the current performance and effectiveness of a country’s public governance system. These areas include “Voice and Accountability”, “Political Stability and Absence of Violence/Terrorism”, “Regulatory Quality”, “Rule of Law”, “Control of Corruption”, and “Government Effectiveness”. Notably, the “Government Effectiveness” dimension, which reflects perceptions of the quality of public services and policy implementation, civil service independence and the credibility of the government’s commitment to policies (World Bank, n.d.[11]), reached a record high of 40.5 in 2021. This represents a significant improvement compared to 28.6 in 2016. Other dimensions have also recorded significant progress: “Regulatory Quality” and “Rule of Law” dimensions have seen significant increases, rising from 11.9 to 31.6 and 13.3 to 21.7 respectively, between 2019 and 2022 (Kaufmann and Kraay, 2023[12]).
Uzbekistan generally displays a stronger governance performance than most countries in Central Asia but tends to fall behind Kazakhstan and comparable OECD member countries. According to the World Bank’s WGIs data from 2022, Uzbekistan outperforms Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan in “Government Effectiveness”, “Control of Corruption”, “Regulatory Quality”, and “Rule of Law” (Kaufmann and Kraay, 2023[12]). However, Uzbekistan scores lower than Kazakhstan in virtually all WGI indicators, as well as lower than Kyrgyzstan in the “Voice and Accountability” dimension. Similarly, OECD countries including Czechia (81.1), Latvia (75.0), and Poland (61.8) hold significantly higher scores in “Government Effectiveness” as well as the other WGI dimensions, whereas Uzbekistan’s scores are closer to Türkiye among OECD member countries (Figure 1.3).
Source: Author’s work based on (Kaufmann and Kraay, 2023[12]).
Size and scope: the size of the government in Uzbekistan has steadily increased over recent years but remains significantly below the OECD average.
The size and scope of the public administration vary greatly from country to country, often serving as a reflection of a country’s political system, history and tradition. In essence, these characteristics highlight the different approaches governments use to deliver on their commitments to citizens. While this dimension alone does not guarantee public sector efficiency, comparing Uzbekistan’s public sector to others helps to further understand its model and to cluster with comparable countries.
Over the last few years, streamlining the civil service and boosting its overall effectiveness has been an important reform area for Uzbekistan. As stipulated by the presidential decree “On Measures to Implement Administrative Reforms of New Uzbekistan”, creating an effective public sector management system is “an important condition for building a New Uzbekistan” (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2022[13]). This reform entails optimising government structures by eliminating redundant agencies and simplifying services provided to citizens. Moreover, Uzbekistan’s plans to improve its public administration incorporate a more prominent role for the private sector. To this end, the country’s long-term strategy Uzbekistan 2030 aims to transfer 40 percent of public services to the private sector and triple private sector participation in healthcare, construction, transport and education (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2023[6]). These measures collectively strive to create a more agile and compact public administration.
General government expenditures in Uzbekistan are relatively low compared to the OECD average. In 2022, general government expenditure amounted to 35% of GDP in Uzbekistan, whereas in OECD countries, government expenditure accounted for 46.3% of GDP on average (Figure 1.4). This places Uzbekistan among comparable, moderately centralised countries including Chile (34.1%), Türkiye (35.9%) and Lithuania (36.5%), all of which spend slightly less than 50% of government expenditure at the central level. Uzbekistan’s central government expenditure is slightly lower than Kyrgyzstan (36.8%) but markedly higher than Kazakhstan, having spent 22.6% of GDP in 2023 (World Bank, 2023[14]) (International Monetary Fund, 2023[15]). In Uzbekistan, government expenditure has steadily risen since 2017, when it accounted for 22.4% of the country’s GDP (International Monetary Fund, 2023[15]). This trend reflects the expanding priorities of the state, particularly on key areas including job creation and support of SMEs during the COVID-19 pandemic (OECD, 2023[1]). It is worth noting that among OECD countries, government expenditure peaked in 2020, largely due to the heightened fiscal demands of the COVID-19 pandemic (OECD, 2023[16]).
Note: Data for Australia, Chile, Columbia, Costa Rica, Israel, Japan, Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States refer to the year of 2021; data for Türkiye refer to the year of 2020.
Source: (OECD, 2024[17]); Data for Uzbekistan obtained from (International Monetary Fund, 2023[15]).
General government employment in Uzbekistan is at the average level of the OECD. In 2021, according to the Ministry of Employment and Poverty Reduction, public sector employment accounted for 18.69% of total employment in 2021 (Statistics Agency under the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2024[18]), slightly above the OECD average of 18.63% (Figure 1.5). This suggests Uzbekistan has medium-sized public sector employment compared to OECD member countries. This is broadly similar in size to Central European countries such as Hungary (19.57%), Slovak Republic (19.3%), Poland (17.3%) and Slovenia (17.17%). While Hungary has a fairly centralised public administration with more than two-thirds of civil servants working in the central government, other countries have moderately centralised public administration with approximately half of government employees working at sub-national levels (OECD, 2023[16]).
Note: Data for Australia, Chile, Colombia, New Zealand is not available. Data for Costa Rica and Switzerland refer to the year of 2020; data for Iceland refer to the year of 2019.
Source: (OECD, 2024[17]); Data for Uzbekistan is authors’ own elaboration based on (Statistics Agency under the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2024[18]).
In comparison to Uzbekistan, OECD member countries with similar levels of expenditure as Uzbekistan, including Türkiye and Korea, tend to spend comparatively less on personnel costs and more on infrastructure and outsourced services to non-government entities. Exceptionally, Lithuania spends more on remuneration of public employees.
Agility and resilience: Uzbekistan has demonstrated capabilities to adapt its institutions to emerging challenges and priorities that demand more clarity on roles and responsibilities.
A government’s effectiveness depends on its ability to be both agile and resilient. Agility refers to a government’s capacity to make swift decisions, co-ordinate their implementation, and adapt its organisation and resource allocation (OECD, 2015[19]). This allows governments to respond effectively to evolving needs, new priorities, ands changing contexts. Resilience focuses on a government’s ability to absorb shocks, recover from them, and prepare for future challenges, including socio-economic, institutional or environmental, among others (OECD, 2023[20]). Ideally, governments should strive for both qualities to navigate a complex policy environment.
As in other countries, the COVID-19 pandemic was a significant stress test for Uzbekistan’s public institutions, which weathered the crisis well. Uzbekistan’s government rose to the challenge with notable adaptability and resilience, implementing a multifaceted strategy to combat the pandemic, fortify the healthcare system, and pave the way for economic recovery. At the beginning of the pandemic, the public administration’s focus shifted towards expanding the country’s capacity for testing and treatment. Uzbekistan’s government created and leveraged an Anti-Crisis Fund of US$ 1 billion, around 2% of GDP, to bolster the economy and provide support to those most affected by the pandemic (International Monetary Fund, 2021[21]). The government of Uzbekistan quickly expanded its funding to healthcare, expanded the number of families with children to receive social benefits, and supported businesses in the most need.
The public administration in Uzbekistan remains centralised and hierarchical. Established in August 2018 by presidential decree “On the Establishment of the Administration of President of the Republic of Uzbekistan”, the Presidential Administration (PA) plays a central role in shaping and monitoring strategic directions of the country and supports the implementation of the decrees and decisions of the President (President of the Uzbekistan, 2024[22]). Tasked with providing comprehensive support in organisational analysis oversight, the PA assumes the central role in shaping the trajectory of governance reforms. It articulates the overarching directions for public administration reform in Uzbekistan, entrusting sectoral-specific reform mandates to line ministries. The government, headed by the Prime Minister, is the main execution body that ensures the guidance and execution of the economic, social and cultural development of the country (Government of Uzbekistan, 2024[23]). Line ministries are mainly tasked with the implementation of policies in their respective sectors and have subordinate committees, agencies and inspectorates to help them in implementation. All four republican executive bodies – ministries, their committees, agencies and inspectorates – are mandated to develop a unified state policy in the relevant area and ensure methodological assistance for local executive authorities (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2022[13]). Nonetheless, current efforts, supported by the Agency for Strategic Reforms, seek to accelerate the decentralisation of the government to the regional and local level.
Recent reforms addressing the reorganisation of ministries have demonstrated the government’s capacity to adapt to changing issues and priorities yet have contributed to heightened personnel instability within nascent ministries and unclear mandates between public entities. The December 2022 presidential decree “On Measures to Implement Administrative Reforms of New Uzbekistan” outlines significant institutional changes within the ministries and agencies operating under the Government of Uzbekistan (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2022[13]). The decree introduces modifications to the executive structure of the Cabinet of Ministers aimed at abolishing agencies deemed redundant or inefficient, while establishing a new hierarchy of ministries to more strongly address the priorities outlined in the Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022-2026. In detail, the reforms reduce the number of independent executive bodies from 61 to 28, including ministries from 25 to 21, and transfers several committees, state committees, agencies and state inspectorates, previously operating under the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan or the Council of Ministers to the jurisdiction of line ministries (see Table 1.1). Furthermore, the decree underscores a focus on increasing the independence and efficiency of line ministries regarding budget and personnel needs and promoting the formation of public-private partnerships for service delivery and the transfer of further government functions to the private sector. However, these institutional reforms have generated high turnover in management personnel, contributing to a lack of clear, delineated mandates across ministries, slowing implementation. Effective reorganisation of the executive bodies system necessitates defining clear mandates for all entities involved, for example through legislation, to prevent duplication of roles, improve accountability and foster policy delivery.
The government has also identified one theme per year to support and accelerate its reform efforts in a targeted field. For instance, the year 2023 was declared as “The Year of Human Care and Quality Education”, serving as a launchpad for sectoral reforms (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2022[24]).
Responsiveness: Uzbekistan holds ambitious plans to increase responsiveness of its public administration, especially in the digitalisation of public services.
Responsiveness in public administration refers to actively serving citizens and addressing their diverse needs. This fosters inclusive growth, through which all citizens can benefit from economic progress. A responsive government listens to its people’s concerns and expectations and reacts in a timely and flexible manner.
In late 2016, the government of Uzbekistan launched an ambitious economic and social reform programme, also recognising the need to boost the responsiveness of its public services. While initial focus was on improving economic parameters, the government also devoted its attention to improving responsiveness and accountability of its public sector. This mainly translated into establishing various communication and feedback channels for citizens, such as complaint mechanisms, online meetings with officials and platforms for feedback on regulations and budgeting (World Bank, 2022[25]).
As Uzbekistan enters a new era of development under the 2030 Strategy, the government has acknowledged the need to further increase the responsiveness of its public administration. In particular, these needs are most addressed in education, health and social protection, youth politics and digitalisation of public services through the pursuit of ambitious sectoral plans. The current performance in digitalisation and education is further discussed in this sub-section as illustration of recent developments and remaining issues in public service delivery in Uzbekistan.
Digitalisation of public services
Uzbekistan has paid particular attention to the digitalisation of public services and has made important strides over recent years. Launched in 2013, the E-Government portal currently offers more than 60% of public services online (Development Strategy Center, 2022[26]). The country’s progress is reflected in the E-Government Development Index (EGDI), which measures online service quality and scope, telecommunication infrastructure development, and human capital. Since introducing the central portal, Uzbekistan’s EGDI has risen from 0.47 (out of 1) in 2014 to 0.73 in 2022 (United Nations, 2022[27]). This surpasses neighbouring Turkmenistan (0.48), Tajikistan (0.50) and Kyrgyzstan (0.69), but falls shorts of regional leader Kazakhstan (0.86) (Figure 1.6). The percentage of individuals using the Internet has also notably increased, reaching 83.9% in 2022 compared to 70.4% in 2019 (International Telecommunication Union, 2022[28]).
Source: Author’s work based on (United Nations, 2022[27]).
In recent years, Uzbekistan has put forth significant reforms for open government and online participation. However, further progress can be made in increasing public awareness of the availability of online services and the opportunities for citizens to participate online. For example, the country has developed an open data portal, as well as several public participation, dialogue, and petition portals. Although over 50% of citizens believe online public services can help to save time and cost and ensure better quality of services, nearly half of urban residents surveyed had limited awareness of these services (Kuldosheva, 2021[29]). Rural populations face even greater limitations due to infrastructural shortcomings.
Uzbekistan offers universal access to education; however, quality and accessibility challenges remain. The country provides free primary and secondary education to all citizens starting at age 7. Although the country has expanded its network of schools, the administration can further increase the quality of school instruction and access to pre-school and tertiary education (World Bank, 2022[25]). As such, almost half (46%; 2022) of children aged 36-59 months attend an early childhood education programme in Uzbekistan, slightly above Turkmenistan (41%; 2019) but less than in Kazakhstan (55%; 2015) (UNICEF, 2023[30]). Due to significant reform efforts in this area in the last few years, Uzbekistan has improved its tertiary school enrolment rates, increasing pupils enrolling into higher education from 12.8% in 2019 to 31.5% in 2022 (World Bank, n.d.[31]). Nevertheless, this value is at half the rate of neighbouring Kazakhstan, where tertiary school enrolment rates represent almost 65%. These disparities in access and quality of education are particularly acute in rural areas and regions with higher poverty levels, leading to significant differences between schools in the regions and in the capital, Tashkent.
Education stands as an important reform priority for Uzbekistan. It is particularly crucial in the context of a fast-growing population – in present-day 60% of Uzbekistan’s population are people under 30 years of age, creating the potential for the country in next decades to have the largest labour force it ever faced (UNICEF, 2020[32]). Highlighted as the first area for improvement in the 2030 Strategy, the government is committed to enhancing the quality of pre-school and secondary education, as well as improving teacher training (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2023[6]). This is particularly crucial as public concerns linger about Uzbekistan’s education system. As revealed in a 2020 public opinion study, over half of citizens worry about their children receiving a good education (World Bank, 2021[33]).
In 2022, Uzbekistan participated in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) for the first time, marking a significant step for the country’s education system, gaining valuable insights for future improvements. Students in Uzbekistan scored less than the OECD average in the PISA. Overall, 15-year-old students in Uzbekistan scored 364 points in mathematics, 336 points in reading and 355 points in science compared to 472, 476 and 485 points respectively in OECD countries (Figure 1.7).
Despite lower performance scores, Uzbek students reported positive experiences at school. A high percentage (71%) felt a sense of belonging (compared to the OECD average of 75%), and an even greater majority (86%) felt they can easily make friends at school (compared to the OECD average of 76%) (OECD, 2023[34]). Only 10% of students reported that they were not satisfied with their lives (OECD, 2023[34]).
Note: Comparison countries include the six highest-performing countries in each subject and the five countries with the largest population of 15-year-old students. Horizontal lines that extend beyond the markers represent a measure of uncertainty associated with mean estimates (the 95% confidence interval).
Source: (OECD, 2023[34]).
Inclusiveness: Uzbekistan has made strides in reducing poverty and building an inclusive public administration, however, continued efforts are required to foster participation and tackle inequality effectively.
Inclusiveness refers to the degree to which an environment is accessible and equitable for all people regardless of their age, sex, identity, or ability. In the public administration, this translates to a diverse workplace that is open to people irrespective of their backgrounds and the inclusion of different voices in the work of civil servants. On a societal level, governments hold responsibility for removing barriers people face in their daily life and fostering participation in order to build a more inclusive society.
Since the launch of a broad economic transformation in 2017, Uzbekistan has implemented various reforms promoting greater economic and social inclusion. Notably, these measures address inequality, poverty, gender equality and civil participation, which are further discussed in this sub-section.
Social inclusion: poverty and inequality
Over the past two decades, Uzbekistan has made significant strides in reducing poverty. The number of people living below the international poverty line of $2.15 per day (as of 2017) has plummeted from 19.7% in 2015 to 0.73% in 2023 (World Data Lab, 2023[4]). This represents a near eradication of extreme poverty, bringing Uzbekistan closer to Kazakhstan. The Statistics Agency under the President of Uzbekistan has communicated that in the last three years, the poverty rate in the country dropped from 17% in 2021 to 11% in 2023, lifting more than 2 million people out from poverty (Embassy of the Republic of Uzbekistan in Malaysia, 2024[35]).
In contrast, income inequality has fluctuated in Uzbekistan, with a general increasing trend observed over the past few years. According to the State Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan on Statistics, the GINI index fluctuated between 0.26 and 0.29 over the past decade (State Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan on Statistics, 2022[36]), reaching the lowest level of 0.26 from 2017 to 2019. The COVID-19 pandemic had a negative impact on income inequality, increasing it to 0.28 in 2022. This indicates a level of inequality similar to OECD countries such as Czechia and Hungary (OECD, 2024[37]).
While the most basic needs of citizens are now largely met and the government is committed to further reducing poverty and inequality, there is greater room for strengthening social nets in Uzbekistan. Poverty and inequality remain highest in rural areas (World Bank, 2022[25]). Uzbekistan’s relatively comprehensive social protection system, inherited from the Soviet Union, requires adaptation to address current inequality and poverty challenges.
Inclusiveness in public administration: gender equality and civil society participation
Uzbekistan has enshrined gender equality in its Constitution and is one of the regional leaders in advancing women rights. However, women continue to be underrepresented in public administration, particularly in leadership positions. As such, the 2023 Amendments to the Constitution asserted the equality of women and men (Article 58) and prohibited discrimination against women in employment based on their parental status (Article 42) (The Republic of Uzbekistan, 2023[38]). In addition, the country has issued laws that promote women rights and address gender-based violence, for instance, the Law on Guarantees of Equal Rights and Opportunities for Women and Men (2019) and the Law on Strengthening the Protection System for Women and Children (2023). It is also worth noting that Uzbekistan criminalised domestic violence in 2023, becoming the fifth country in Eastern Europe and Central Asia to do so as a separate criminal offence (Amnesty International, 2023[39]).
In terms of gender equality in Uzbekistan’s public administration, in 2022, women held 33.3% of national parliament seats, exceeding the European and Central Asian average (30.9%) (World Bank, n.d.[40]). This represents a significant rise from 16% in 2019. However, all 13 regional governors, or khokims, were men. As communicated by the Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI), a profound gender gap in management exists in Uzbekistan, with 98% of middle and senior managers being men (OECD, 2023[41]). Additionally, discrimination in the family against women remains one of the region’s highest at 41.7% (OECD, 2023[41]). The majority of Uzbekistan’s population believe that men are more entitled to work and are better in leadership positions. These factors significantly contribute to the imbalanced gender representation in Uzbekistan’s public administration.
The government of Uzbekistan has taken steps to encourage civil society participation in policymaking processes and the country has progressed in this matter. However, civil society engagement remains limited in Uzbekistan. Particularly, the civil society participation index rose from 0.12 (out of 1) in 2016 to a record high 0.31 in 2021 (Varieties of Democracy, 2023[42]). However, this has since declined to 0.26 in 2023, falling behind Kazakhstan (0.48) and Kyrgyzstan (0.43) in citizen and NGO consultation, and overall civil society involvement in decision-making. The World Bank’s “Voice and Accountability” Indicator, which captures the perception of the extent to which citizens can participate in choosing their government, and in freedom of expression, association and media, exhibits a similar trend: Uzbekistan has improved its ranking from 3.0 (out of 100) in 2016 to 12.6 in both 2021 and 2022 (Kaufmann and Kraay, 2023[12]). In this indicator, Uzbekistan scores lower than Kazakhstan (19.8; 2022) and the regional leader in public participation Kyrgyzstan (29.0).
In order to enhance public participation and public scrutiny of government activities, Uzbekistan has employed new initiatives. For example, in 2016, the country created a “virtual reception” of the President of the Republic, an official online platform for citizens to petition government and state services and directly send appeals to ministries and departments (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2024[43]). Three months after launching the platform, more than one million applications were received, which state agencies were reported to have treated with high urgency (Karshiev, 2020[44]). Furthermore, in 2018, Uzbekistan set up a system of public councils (Jamoatchilik kengashlari) under numerous ministries, state committees and government agencies. A similar stakeholder engagement system exists in neighbouring Kazakhstan (OECD, 2020[45]) that largely served as an inspiration for Uzbekistan. After being in place for several years, the public councils have been effective to an extent. In particular, not all public councils are active (Karshiev, 2020[44]) and openness and transparency in rulemaking procedures are often limited, which hinders public participation in decision-making processes of the country (Nabijonov, 2022[46]).
As underlined by Uzbekistan’s score on the WB voice and accountability indicators, the country can further enhance citizen participation in service design and policymaking to make policies and services more human centric and responsive to citizens’ needs. This could involve studying the experiences of countries such as Ireland and Finland in advancing the participation agenda and using innovative citizen engagement mechanisms, including National Policy dialogues and online consultation platforms (OECD, 2020[45]).
Cross-cutting issues: Uzbekistan has some capacity in dealing with cross-cutting challenges, however it should be further strengthened including climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Cross-cutting issues, by demanding engagement across most or all sectors, pose a significant challenge to governments’ activities. Governments are increasingly faced with these issues and must develop the internal capabilities and instruments to deliver on long-term and horizontal commitments. To this end, governments must strengthen their capacity to integrate efforts across all policy development processes and adopt long-term thinking. This necessitates clear objectives, stable resource allocation, strong political support at the highest levels, and whole-of-government co-ordination along with commitment from senior officials, civil servants, and civil society.
Climate change mitigation and adaptation are prime examples of cross-cutting issues. As global temperatures rise and natural disasters become more frequent, governments around the world grapple with the multifaced challenges of climate change, including air pollution, ecosystem destruction and more. Box 1.2 highlights Uzbekistan’s vulnerability to climate change and demonstrates its government’s efforts to address these issues.
Uzbekistan stands among the most vulnerable nations in Central Asia to climate change impacts. The ND-GAIN Country Index ranks Uzbekistan, alongside with Tajikistan, as the region’s most susceptible to climate-related disruptions (Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative, 2024[47]). Since 2010, air pollution has worsened in Uzbekistan, exposing over half the population to unhealthy levels of PM2.5 particulates (OECD, 2023[48]). The country experiences significant hydrometeorological hazards and natural disasters, including seasonal floods and recurring droughts. Climate projections indicate that Uzbekistan will face rising temperatures, increased drought frequency, more intense extreme weather events, and heavy precipitation variability (Climate links, n.d.[49]).
Recognising the importance of addressing climate challenges, Uzbekistan has accelerated its transition to a green economy. To this end, the country has placed the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) at the core of its development planning (OECD, 2023[50]). In 2019, the government approved the Strategy on Green Economy Transition 2019–2030, tasking the Ministry of Employment and Poverty Reduction with overseeing its implementation and co-ordinating relevant ministries and agencies (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2019[51]). Additionally, Uzbekistan has adopted various sectoral strategies and reforms like the National Strategy on Biodiversity Conservation 2019-2028 and transformation plans to develop the Aral Sea Region into a Zone of Ecological Innovation and Technology. Uzbekistan also hosts the largest solar energy development programme in the region, aiming to increase renewable energy in production of electricity to 25% of total demand by 2030 (International Renewable Energy Agency, 2023[52]). In its updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), Uzbekistan pledges a 35% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions per unit of GDP by 2030 compared with 2010 levels, exceeding the initial 10% target.
Uzbekistan commits to further increase its co-ordination capacity around climate change. To this end, there are plans to set up a working group on climate change comprised of the Agency for Strategic Reforms under the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, line ministries and public agencies.
Altogether, these measures combined with existing experience in managing climate disasters suggest Uzbekistan is relatively well-positioned for adaptation. However, the ND-GAIN Country Index, while acknowledging Uzbekistan’s strong adaptation potential, also highlights remaining challenges that require continued efforts (Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative, 2024[47]).
In its efforts to enhance co-ordination for climate action, Uzbekistan could consider developing new horizontal and co-ordination instruments and mechanisms to ensure a consistent whole-of-government response to climate change. OECD member countries have developed a number of governance instruments to support co-ordination from the centre on climate. As such, these instruments can follow a centralised arrangement with a lead co-ordination unit situated at the centre of government or a line ministry. For example, in Poland, climate policies related to EU law are handled within the Chancellery of the Prime Minister, particularly the unit responsible for the co-ordination of Poland’s European policy, reporting to the Minister for European Affairs (Kaur et al., 2023[53]). In contrast, Estonia at first established and co-ordinated climate policies from its centre of government before moving this function to the Ministry of Climate (Box 1.3). Other mechanisms used in OECD member countries include permanent intergovernmental committees or commissions, climate “focal” points within ministries or agencies that serve as a mechanism to address co-ordination gaps and specific taskforces for co-ordination activities in specific areas (Kaur et al., 2023[53]). In practice, OECD countries utilise different instruments and approaches in tandem in order to co-ordinate their climate change policies. Box 1.3 describes Estonia’s and Sweden’s co-ordination approaches to their climate policies in more detail.
Estonia
In Estonia, the green transition policy has initially been centrally co-ordinated by the Government Office with the main aim to draw up a clear and concise action plan for the coming years to ensure the effective implementation of green transition and climate policy. This was in response to the acknowledgement that climate and green transition policies need a fundamental shift in policy design and implementation. Estonia emphasised the importance of a government-wide approach, which considers the environmental, social, and economic aspects of these policies to be of major importance. In addition, as climate and green transition policies lead to fundamental transformation of the society and economy, the government-wide leadership of these processes needs to be ensured.
To achieve their aim, three main steps were taken:
Establishment of the Committee of Green Transition Policy (led by the Prime Minister, consists of relevant Ministers).
Creation of an expert group, whose task was to make recommendations on the main priorities in green transition policy (consisted of experts, scientists, and private sector representatives).
Establishment of the green transition team at the Government Office, whose responsibility was to co-ordinate the government-wide green transition process and to draw up the above-mentioned action plan.
All these steps were necessary to acquire the political mandate, which gave the co-ordination team a lever to push all the sectors to set up their respective plans. Estonia noted that political leadership, flexibility and the need for sufficient time for changes to occur were key lessons learnt.
From September 2023, the Committee of Green Transition Policy is led by the Minister of Climate, indicating a shift in approaches for the implementation.
Sweden
Sweden has developed a number of practices and mechanisms on the governance of cross-cutting topics that could be streamlined, particularly by establishing a strong framework for cross-cutting priorities to signal it as a clear priority, developing strategies and using joint assignments. Climate change is one such example, as it has been supported by the establishment of a strong framework with the Climate Policy Act. This has set the need for a Climate Action plan every four years (one year out from elections), clear objectives and a Council/governance arrangement.
The country has often used inter-ministerial Councils and Working Groups at different levels to support policymaking and co-ordination on horizontal priorities, including climate, innovation and digital. They were sometimes short-lived, lacking a specific mandate or did not have a clear enough institutional anchor. For instance, the Ministerial Working Group on Climate Policy was given a very broad mandate with limited resources to fulfil it. The latter was a forum for meetings and discussions composed by a secretariat, and it had two bodies reporting to it: an inter-ministerial group of State Secretaries and an inter-ministerial group of civil servants. The experience of long-standing Councils in Sweden and in other OECD member countries shows that councils can be a valuable asset provided that they are given a clear agenda and/or objective to foster collaboration and provide value added.
Source : (Kaur et al., 2023[53]); (OECD, 2023[20]).
Since 2017, Uzbekistan has prioritised public administration reform (PAR) as a cornerstone of its national strategic documents. In the Concept of Administrative Reform in the Republic of Uzbekistan, the country laid the foundation for a modernised and efficient public administration, focusing on refining institutional governance frameworks, enhancing the independence of executive authorities and modernising performance assessment systems. The subsequent Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022-2026 outlined a comprehensive roadmap for long-term sustainable development, placing a strong emphasis on citizen well-being and effective governance. These objectives have been reinforced in the country’s current long-term strategic document, Uzbekistan 2030 Strategy, which aims to build a prosperous and inclusive society by empowering local governance structures, modernising administrative processes and frameworks, and enhancing civil service standards (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2023[6]).
Uzbekistan demonstrates a strong, high-level commitment to public administration reform, aiming to establish a transparent, efficient, and citizen-centred public administration to drive socio-economic progress and sustainable development through 2030. Current reforms, outlined in the 2023 Administrative Reform Process, largely address the organisational structure of government institutions, civil service reform, enhancing local governance and digitalisation. The country’s key priorities in PAR are broadly aligned with public administration reform strategies in OECD countries, more than half of which have implemented comprehensive PARs to enhance good governance and achieve policy outcomes since 2015 (OECD, 2024[54]).
Czechia’s public administration reform strategy, Client-oriented Public Administration 2030, was published in 2020 by the Department of Strategic Development and Coordination of Public Administration, which operates under the Ministry of the Interior. While Centres of Government (CoG) in OECD countries are often involved in designing, steering and monitoring public administration reform, this role is devoted to the Ministry of Interior in Czechia.
The strategic document envisions “a client-oriented public administration creating conditions for the growth of prosperity in Czechia and further increasing the quality of life of its population”. The PAR articulates three overarching global objectives, subdivided into five strategic aims: quality and accessible services of public administration, efficient system of public administration, efficient public administration institutions, competent human resources and informed and engaged citizens. To achieve these aims, the PAR delineates key projects, including the digitalisation of public services, optimisation of control mechanisms, promotion of evidence-based decision-making and enhancement of skills-based training of both local and state civil servants. The PAR further underscores the importance of improving communication between public administration entities and citizens, as well as raising awareness about citizen participation in public affairs. Special attention is directed to specific population groups, such as individuals with disabilities, to ensure their equal access to public services.
The implementation timeline is structured around three Action Plans, with the initial two spanning three years each and the final Plan extending over four years. In preparation of the PAR, public feedback was solicited through online questionnaires in 2018. This input was thoroughly reviews and integrated into both the PAR and the corresponding Action Plan.
These comprehensive reform strategies have most prominently targeted public service delivery, digitalisation and administrative simplification, human resource management (HRM) and leadership, public participation, flexibility in governance, long-term priorities and integrity and accountability (see Figure 1.8). New areas in public governance are becoming increasingly relevant with half of reform strategies making reference to them. This translates for instance into the development of new objectives and pillars on public participation, or the shift of public service modernisation objectives from effectiveness-driven to citizen-oriented efforts, particularly on public services.
Further areas of improvement should focus on improving mechanisms for inter-ministerial co-ordination and clarifying reform mandates among relevant agencies, ensuring a skilled and stable workforce within line ministries, aligning KPIs with actionable inputs to support heightened monitoring and evaluation, and streamlining key reform priorities between the country’s two active long-term strategic documents. These improvements are particularly crucial to support the sweeping institutional reforms currently underway in 2023 Administrative Reform Process Stages 1 and 2.
More than 95% of reforms cover service delivery or digitalisation and around 50% are linked to democratic governance or trust in government.
Note: Data analysed for 30 OECD countries having implemented PARS or Separate Initiatives since 2015; thematic areas in orange are addressed in the Uzbekistan 2030 Strategy.
Source: Author’s own elaboration; preliminary findings from desk research.
Uzbekistan has established public administration reform as a key priority of its national development strategies, linking an efficient, effective, and accountable public administration to the country’s socio-economic ambitions.
In September 2017, Uzbekistan released a dedicated and comprehensive strategic document for PAR, Concept of Administrative Reform in the Republic of Uzbekistan, to support the successful implementation of the key priority areas of the whole-of-government Action Strategy 2017-2021, including the improvement of state and social institutional systems. The Concept intended to address systemic shortcomings within the public administration, including ineffective organisation and co-ordination of executive authorities operating within outdated and unaccountable systems, to improve both Uzbekistan’s socio-economic progress and citizen welfare (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2017[57]). The strategy sought to overhaul the public administration by (i) refining the institutional framework and boosting independence of executive authorities, alongside advancing electronic governance; (ii) clarifying tasks and improving co-ordination, introducing new performance assessment systems; (iii) reducing administrative interference in the economy, fostering public-private partnerships; (iv) decentralising governance, empowering local bodies; (v) integrating modern planning and technology; and (vi) enhancing civil service and anti-corruption measures, ensuring transparency (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2017[57]). The Concept includes a detailed road map detailing the responsible executors and deadlines for implementing the mandated reforms, with the final deadline set for March 1st, 2018. Despite this, no evaluation assessment has been conducted since the conclusion of the timeline outlined in the strategy.
In January 2022, Uzbekistan released the Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022-2026, a comprehensive plan delineating the country’s vision for progress and prosperity over a five-year period. The Development Strategy serves as a roadmap for Uzbekistan’s continued state transformation and aims to further enhance the well-being of citizens and socio-economic prosperity. It consists of seven priority directions and one hundred goals, including measures to reinforce accountability and enhance organisational and service delivery capacities within the public administration. These measures, outlined in “Priority Area I: Building a human state through the elevation of human honour and dignity and the further development of a free civil society”, address:
Institutional strengthening and empowerment: enhance the capacities of local governance bodies, including mahallas and Kengashes of people’s deputies. These reforms reinforce financial autonomy and avenues for citizen engagement in decision-making, with a focus on empowering Kengashes to address regional challenges in mahallas.
Modernisation of governance structures: restructure institutional frameworks to meet contemporary demands. This includes adopting a citizen-centric approach to public administration to improve service delivery by prioritising citizen needs.
Professionalisation and efficiency enhancement: optimise administrative processes within the public sector. This is achieved through targeted training programmes for officials and streamlining administrative mechanisms to improve resource allocation and efficiency.
Technological advancement and e-government implementation: leverage digitalisation for better service delivery. This includes expanding online services, deploying digital identification systems, and enhancing data exchange between public agencies to streamline procedures and enhance accessibility.
Civil service improvement and public engagement: elevate the civil service system and involve the public in government processes. This includes modernising recruitment standards, refining performance assessment procedures, and promoting professional development. The reforms seek to strengthen mechanisms for public dialogue to ensure citizen involvement in decision-making.
Public control and accountability: enhance oversight mechanisms and accountability within governance structures. This involves reforming organisational and legal frameworks to strengthen public oversight, foster transparency, and fortify citizen-led mechanisms, reinforcing public sector accountability and effective policy implementation.
The Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022-2026 and the 2017 Concept of Administrative Reform share several common priorities, reflecting a coherent approach to addressing systemic challenges within Uzbekistan’s public administration. Both strategies underscore the critical importance of strengthening institutional frameworks, modernising governance structures, and improving service delivery. The Concept adopts a strong focus on reforming institutional and operational characteristics of the public administration. The Development Strategy expands upon these objectives by placing a human-level emphasis on public administration reform, including investing in the professional development of civil servants, leveraging digitalisation for service enhancement, and fostering greater public engagement and control in decision-making processes.
The December 2022 presidential decree “On Measures to Implement Administrative Reforms of New Uzbekistan” operationalises the implementation of the Development Strategy’s priority areas for PAR. In addition to its modifications to the hierarchy of government ministries and agencies (see Table 1.1), the decree introduces reforms to streamline the process for submitting and reviewing draft legal acts and enhance the accountability of government officials by mandating the selection of target indicators by the President for the evaluation of executive agencies. (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2022[13]). The decree establishes these reforms within the scope of the 2023 Administrative Reform Process, with the initial stage focusing on reforming the organisational structure of republican executive bodies, followed by the second stage addressing the reform of local government bodies.
Following the adoption of the new edition of the Constitution in April 2023, current PAR priorities in Uzbekistan are organised in the 2030 Strategy, a comprehensive long-term strategic plan that outlines the country’s vision for the next decade; the strategy was developed following public discussion and the experience acquired from the implementation of the Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022-2026 (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2023[6]). The strategy aims to build a free and prosperous, strong New Uzbekistan through the achievement of one hundred goals within five key priority areas. The strategy is underpinned by a commitment to providing opportunities for every citizen to realize their potential, nurturing a healthy, educated, and spiritually enriched generation, fostering a resilient economy that plays a significant role in global production, and ensuring justice, the rule of law, security, and stability. The plan outlines public administration reforms within “Priority Area 4.1. Reforms on the organisation of public administration oriented towards the service of the people and the improvement of public administration”, including:
Enhancement of mahalla functionality: strengthening mahallas as intermediary bodies between the public and government agencies, including directing funds to resident-approved projects, expanding services, and digitising interactions.
Empowering local governance structures: strengthening local governance to better represent citizen interests and efficiently address community needs, including removing khokims from leading Kengashes to promote increased public participation in decision-making, and revamping and rationalising the role of khokimiyats by empowering them in staffing decisions and establishing a legal framework for their formation and dismissal.
Introduction of a “service state” system: revolutionising public service delivery by digitising processes and enhancing efficiency, including achieving full digitisation of services, increasing the share of services provided through online platforms, offering composite and proactive services, and transferring certain services to the private sector.
Reorganisation of the public administration: streamlining the public administration and fostering private sector involvement, including increasing private sector participation, fully digitising public administration functions, reducing regulatory burdens and decentralising administrative tasks.
Strengthening parliamentary role: empowering parliamentary chambers and enhancing their digital capabilities, including digitising parliamentary processes, enabling electronic submission and consideration of legislative proposals, and implementing a mixed electoral system.
Improving legal policy foundation: enhancing the legal framework and regulatory environment by reducing regulatory burdens, increased the share of direct-action laws, ensuring comprehensive monitoring of regulatory act implementation, and expanding regulatory impact assessments.
Advancement of civil service standards: modernising and professionalising the civil service by fully digitising personnel divisions, extending professional development coverage to all civil servants, incorporating more state agencies into the civil service system, and maintaining a reserve of leadership candidates.
Enhanced citizen interaction: improving citizen-state interaction processes and efficiency by abolishing paper-based appeals, enabling electronic applications to all state agencies, ensuring prompt resolution of complaints, and reducing repeat requests.
The 2030 Strategy exists in tandem with its predecessor, complementing and reinforcing the objectives outlined in Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022-2026 (see Figure 1.9). While both strategies emphasise enhancing local governance, a citizen-centred approach to public administration, legislative and regulatory reforms, and administrative simplification and digitalisation, the current strategic plan builds upon the foundations of the previous strategy by linking its objectives to measurable, achievable key performance indicators (KPIs). This evolution towards more quantifiable objective-setting marks a significant improvement in Uzbekistan’s PAR capacities; however, further improvement could include the integration of KPIs with input-linked action plans, allowing for more effective monitoring and evaluation.
Source: Author’s analysis based on (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2022[5]); (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2023[6]).
Uzbekistan’s recent acceleration of public governance reforms through the adoption of new strategic documents has blurred institutional mandates and competencies for PAR.
Recent governance reforms in Uzbekistan have led to a pronounced centralisation of institutional responsibility for public administration reform within the Presidential Administration (PA), delineating mandates and competencies among line ministries, agencies, committees and inspectorates.
The PA has spearheaded the formulation of 2030 Strategy, and as such provides the strategic guidance on strategic and governance reforms stemming from 2030 Strategy. Each line ministry is mandated to address relevant PAR priorities in their individual sectoral strategies, which are exclusive to a ministry’s scope of work. In contrast, the PA has mandated three executive bodies with whole-of-government PAR responsibilities:
The Agency for Strategic Reforms (ASR): Instituted in September 2022 by presidential decree “On Additional Measures to Accelerate Strategic Reforms”, the ASR functions as the vanguard of cross-sectoral reform initiatives, including the Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022-2026, the 2030 Strategy and the two stages of the 2023 Administrative Reform Process. While the ASR has a broader strategic and thematic mandate, the ASR’s mandate for PAR includes (i) craft reform proposals to enhance the efficiency and competitiveness of targeted sectors within the public administration; (ii) evaluate the effectiveness of reforms, addressing systemic challenges within the bureaucracy and working to reduce administrative obstacles that hinder smooth execution; (iii) co-ordinate and monitor implementation of national development plans, overseeing their execution across government agencies; (iv) engage with international partners to enrich reform initiatives and secure essential resources necessary for successful implementation; (v) establish expert groups to analyse sectors of the public administration and develop reform roadmaps; and (vi) maintain a transparent reporting mechanism to track progress and ensure accountability (Agency for Strategic Reforms, 2022[58]).
The Agency for the Development of Public Service (ARGOS): Entrusted with the implementation of a unified state policy on human resources development and personnel management, the ARGOS has the mandate to transform and enhance the efficiency of Uzbekistan’s civil service through the application of key performance indicators and public opinion to rate the transparency of government entities. Its responsibilities encompass (i) the development of a platform for the transformation of the public service, (ii) co-ordination of state personnel policy, (iii) monitoring and analysis of trends in the civil service sector, (iv) implementation of innovative methods for personnel management, (v) management of the National Personnel Reserve, (vi) implementation of performance evaluation systems, (vii) talent acquisition and development efforts, (viii) integration of information and communication technologies, (ix) and protection of the rights and interests of civil servants. Its decisions hold binding authority across government bodies, contributing to the standardisation and enhancement of public service delivery mechanisms (Agency for the Development of Public Service, 2024[59]).
The Ministry of Justice (MoJ): The MoJ is tasked with a broad mandate encompassing lawmaking and law enforcement. The Ministry has increasingly assumed a more focused role in PAR in recent years, addressing structural reforms within local administrations, mahallas and the civil service. Within the MoJ, the Department for Analysing the Efficiency of the Public Administration is responsible for monitoring and analysis of the public administration based on foreign best practices and current development trends. Since 2017, the Ministry has been entrusted with the co-ordination and monitoring of draft regulatory acts developed as part of the Concept of Administrative Reform and the Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022-2026 (see Box 1.5). In response to evolving needs, the Ministry underwent organisational changes in 2022 and 2024, restructuring its Department of Public Administration into Law Enforcement Department. This alteration expanded its responsibilities to include analytical support to ministries and agencies, facilitating organisational changes and ensuring the successful implementation of assigned reforms within line ministries. As enshrined in presidential decree “On Further Increasing Responsibility and Forming a Compact Management System of Justice Bodies and Institutions within the Framework of Administrative Reforms”, the MoJ and justice institutions are responsible for the provision of methodological assistance to state and local bodies, organisations and citizen entities in the area of forming a unified law enforcement practice (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2024[60]). The MoJ has maintained close collaboration with the ASR, submitting quarterly analytical reports to the Agency on progress in key reform areas.
Since 2017, the Ministry of Justice (MoJ) has been entrusted with the co-ordination and monitoring of regulatory acts developed as part of the Concept of Administrative Reform and the Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022-2026. In 2018, the Department for Analysing the Efficiency of Public Administration was created to analyse and monitor public administration based on foreign best practices and development trends.
Strategic framework and alignment to national priorities
The MoJ’s objectives for public administration reform and modernisation are outlined in the 2030 Strategy, including the comprehensive digitalisation of government services, simplifying regulatory processes and enhancing efficiency and transparency through the “Service State” concept. The MoJ’s interventions are also designed to contribute to the achievement of key priorities of the Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022-2026.To help achieve these objectives, presidential decree “On Further Increasing Responsibility and Forming a Compact Management System of Justice Bodies and Institutions within the Framework of Administrative Reforms” defines the responsibilities for the MoJ to identify and eliminate common legal problems encountered by citizens and make proposals to optimise government’s agencies and organisations functioning through business process reengineering methods.
The ministry’s operational framework is guided by a strategic vision geared towards driving public administration reform (PAR) and institutional development, underpinned by four principles to enhance administrative efficiency, promote accountability and integrity, foster a culture of excellence and professionalism, and strengthen international co-operation and knowledge exchange in the public administration.
Co-ordination of whole-of-government bodies
Given the absence of both a strategic framework for PAR and structured co-ordination instruments with other key bodies such as the ASR, most co-ordination activities take place ad hoc. Nonetheless, the MoJ submits quarterly analytical reports to the ASR on reform progress and co-ordinates closely with the Ministry of Economy and Finance in project selection. Co-ordination of regulatory policymaking is also a key area of responsibility for the MoJ, which manages the platform “Project.gov.uz,” a single system for the development and agreement of draft regulatory documents.
However, these tools do not constitute co-ordination mechanisms per se, as they do not allow for continuous stakeholder collaboration to ensure cohesive PARs. There can be working groups to systematically address PAR, but none of them has yet been formally instituted.
Strengths and challenges
The MoJ has a clear and well-defined mandate to lead and co-ordinate PAR efforts. The adoption of the business re-engineering (BPR) approach from the private sector reflects an innovative spirit for reform. This methodology enables a systematic analysis and redesign of workflows and processes to improve service delivery, reduce costs, and enhance overall effectiveness. Additionally, the MoJ’s engagement in international co-operation initiatives facilitates knowledge exchange, further bolstering its reform efforts.
However, there is weak alignment between the MoJ’s BPR system and broader national strategy frameworks. While national strategic documents provide overarching principles and objectives, the MoJ’s actions do not adequately inform actions or utilise the strategies’ goals in decision-making and project selection. Furthermore, the MoJ’s work on PAR is often conducted on an ad hoc basis without a comprehensive, integrated strategy. The absence of a broad strategy and a co-ordinating body hampers the coherence of public administration reform efforts across different government bodies.
Several challenges persist in the effective implementation of Uzbekistan’s PAR activities. These challenges encompass various areas, including skills gaps in the civil service and the absence of robust performance management mechanisms on the implementation of the Concept and on the 2030 Strategy.
Inter-ministerial co-ordination is crucial to ensure that PAR reform priorities plans are aligned, enhancing capacity for monitoring implementation progress and exploring solutions to address gaps or delays. There is a lack of inter-ministerial co-ordination mechanisms in Uzbekistan, with ministries relying on ad hoc solutions for co-ordinating PAR priorities directed to them by the Presidential Administration. This is exacerbated by limited capacity for inter-ministerial data exchange, hindering the development of evidence-based action plans at the ministerial level. While a digital platform for inter-ministerial open data exchange exists, its utilisation among ministries remains low.
Most OECD member countries have developed dedicated inter-ministerial co-ordination mechanisms to steer and co-ordinate the implementation of their PAR plans. These dedicated structures provide critical support in facilitating collaboration and coherence across government agencies involved in PAR initiatives. In France, the Inter-ministerial Committee for Public Transformation oversees the operational implementation, co-ordination and political direction of PAR initiatives. Similarly, in the United States, the President’s Management Council serves as the primary whole-of-government advisory body, offering guidance on management issues across agencies and overseeing the execution of PAR reform objectives (see Box 1.6). By fostering inter-ministerial dialogue, co-ordination and alignment of efforts, these mechanisms help ensure the execution of PAR agendas, enhancing evidence-based decision-making through knowledge sharing, and improved public sector performance.
France
In France, public administration modernisation initiatives are overseen by the Ministry of Public Transformation and steered and implemented by the Inter-ministerial Directorate of Public Transformation (DITP). The DITP is responsible for the execution of the reform programme and monitoring the implementation of priority reforms set by the French government, in liaison with line Ministries and prefectures to ensure effective implementation.
The implementation of the reform agenda has demonstrated a high level of inter-ministerial co-ordination through two strategic committees and an operational monitoring committee:
The Inter-ministerial Committee for Public Transformation is tasked with ensuring operational implementation, monitoring inter-ministerial co-ordination and political steering of the Action Publique 2022 reform strategy. It convenes members of government biannually or triannually, chaired by the Prime Minister, with secretarial support provided by the DITP.
A high-level strategic committee comprising directors of the central administration and the Minister for Public Transformation focuses on strategic oversight and direction.
An operational monitoring committee brings together local administration directors to discuss monitoring of reform commitments and key performance indicators.
The PAR is effectively translated into administrative and regional networks for implementation. Each network commits to and contextualises the PAR objectives to their sectoral and local interests and contexts. Data is collected at the local level, ensuring proximity to users, and updated regularly.
United States
In the United States, the President’s Management Agenda (PMA) is led by an inter-departmental President’s Management Council (PMC), providing guidance to the President and the Office of Management and Budget on various management issues across government agencies. Chaired by the OMB Deputy Director for Management, the PMC comprises Deputy Secretaries and Administrators from 24 Federal agencies, alongside the Director of the Office of Personnel Management, the Administrator of the General Services Administration and the White House Cabinet Secretary.
Operating as a central hub for organisational performance and management leadership, the PMC oversees the implementation of whole-of-government reform programmes, providing overall direction for the execution of priorities outlined in the PMA.
The PMA outlines three whole-of-government priorities for the Federal Workforce through a concise list of objectives yet allocates the responsibility for implementation and indicator development to each individual Department. Each priority area has an interagency goal team dedicated to its implementation. Interagency forums, executive management councils and communities of practice offer agencies platforms to collaborate, share best practices and foster continuous learning. Each reform initiative, action plan and indicator list developed across all Departments is catalogued on the website Performance.gov, administered by the U.S. General Services Administration.
An additional challenge lies in the lack of a comprehensive framework outlining the mandates and responsibilities of executive bodies involved in PAR. The absence of a whole-of-government monitoring framework for the implementation of the 2030 Strategy underscores the need for enhanced clarity and co-ordination to ensure that all agencies understand their responsibilities in advancing public administration reform initiatives. The presidential decree “On Measures to Further Improve the Activities of the Agency for Strategic Reforms” defines the Agency for Strategic Reforms responsible for monitoring the implementation of medium- and long-term strategies, concepts, state programmes and other documents, thus identifying and eliminating factors that impede their comprehensive implementation (President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2023[65]). However, in practice, the reduced clarity on what executive body is the de facto co-ordinator for PAR exists. This highlights the imperative of establishing robust monitoring mechanisms to track implementation progress and ensure alignment of reform efforts with overarching strategic priorities.
In response to these challenges, Uzbekistan is taking proactive steps to enhance policy coherence and institutionalise monitoring mechanisms. The ASR seeks to develop a dashboard to assist in monitoring and evaluation of the 2030 Strategy, addressing the challenge of data exchange and tracking implementation progress. Furthermore, the establishment of a Delivery Unit within the PA aims to enhance monitoring and evaluation capacities by leveraging key performance indicators for effective oversight, addressing the challenge of limited performance management mechanisms. There is additionally a strong desire to enhance the capacity of the civil service through training and professional development programmes. In addressing significant technical and soft skill gaps in the public administration, these programmes would equip civil servants with the necessary skills and knowledge to effectively contribute to the implementation of key priorities for PAR.
Addressing these challenges necessitates a multifaceted approach that encompasses not only clarifying government mandates and strengthening co-ordination mechanisms on PAR but also addressing the underlying issues related to digital infrastructure and skill development within the civil service.
Improving the implementation of PAR priorities necessitates the strengthening of institutional frameworks that precisely define the mandates of each government body involved in public administration reform. This entails ensuring clear delineation of roles and responsibilities among the PA, the ASR and the MoJ, as well as with line Ministries, through enhanced inter-ministerial co-ordination to ensure sectoral alignment with overarching priorities. Bolstering digital infrastructure is crucial for facilitating inter-ministerial data exchange and streamlining communication channels between government bodies, particularly on sharing key data on the public administration and on civil servants. This can include levels of satisfaction and delivery of public services, the payroll of civil servants and other key government data related to public governance. Investment in technological capabilities, such as upgrading existing systems and implementing new software solutions, is essential for improving efficiency and transparency in PAR initiatives. Additionally, establishing standardised protocols for data sharing and interoperability can further enhance collaboration and decision-making processes across ministries. Uzbekistan is for instance lacking data on public services access, quality and satisfaction. While this information could be collected with surveys, it could be shared electronically across government agencies and help make evidence-based policymaking on the redesign and improvement of services.
Addressing skill gaps within the civil service requires comprehensive training and professional development programmes aimed at equipping civil servants with the necessary competencies to navigate complex implementation challenges effectively. There is also an increased need in the civil service for the enhancement of not only technical skills but also high-level cognitive and complex social competencies (OECD, 2023[66]). Training and workforce development programmes should thus encompass a wide range of topics, including project management, data analysis, and policy evaluation, as well as soft skills, to empower civil servants with the tools and knowledge needed. Fostering a culture of continuous learning and innovation is essential for cultivating a skilled and adaptive workforce capable of responding to evolving needs. This involves creating opportunities for knowledge sharing and collaboration among government employees, as well as incentivising professional growth through performance-based incentives and recognition programmes. These topics will be further explored in Chapter 3 on the future of the public service.
Monitoring and evaluation are essential to fuel performance dialogue on PAR reforms, enabling stakeholders to assess progress, identify challenges and make informed decisions for future reforms. Through systematic tracking of key performance indicators to evaluate outcomes, governments can gauge the success of their PAR strategies and adjust implementation as needed. Kazakhstan has established an Action Plan to implement the Concept for the Development of Public Administration until 2030, which is annually monitored and evaluated by the Ministry of National Economy (see Box 1.7). This evaluation assesses progress towards creating a service-oriented and human-centric model of governance outlined in the Concept. Furthermore, Kazakhstan has synthesised a series of OECD recommendations into a single roadmap for policy implementation, endorsed and monitored by the Office of the Prime Minister.
The Concept for the Development of Public Administration in the Republic of Kazakhstan until 2030 aims to establish a service-oriented and “human-centric” model of governance. To achieve this, the Concept outlines nine key tasks, including the formation of a client-oriented government apparatus, improvement of strategic planning approaches, and enhancement of the quality of human resources. These tasks are further subdivided into 35 projects, with implementation planned until 2030 to drive the transformation of Kazakhstan’s public administration.
To aid in monitoring and evaluation of the PAR strategy, the government has developed an Action Plan for the implementation of the above themes, which is monitored and evaluated on an annual basis by the Ministry of National Economy. The monitoring assessment pairs each thematic reform area to pursued reform objectives, detailing the key performance indicator, the government agencies responsible for their execution, and an evaluation of the reform’s current progress. The evaluation provides specific context as to whether the reform has been completed, not yet reached, or is still in progress, and includes evidence to support these findings. The report is available online for consultation by partners and citizens, displaying achievements and progress in several areas.
By prioritising the development of robust monitoring mechanisms, investing in digital infrastructure, and promoting skill development within the civil service, Uzbekistan can pave the way for a more efficient, effective, and transparent public administration system capable of driving sustainable socio-economic development.
Uzbekistan's commitment to public administration reform (PAR) is evident in its strategic documents, notably the Concept of Administrative Reform, the Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan and Uzbekistan 2030 Strategy. These documents lay out a roadmap for modernising public administration, enhancing governance frameworks and promoting citizen well-being. However, to ensure the successful implementation of these reforms and address existing challenges, several recommendations can be made:
Clarify mandates and responsibilities.
Develop a comprehensive mandate document outlining the roles and responsibilities of public sector agencies involved in PAR. This document should clearly define the objectives, tasks, and expected outcomes for each agency, particularly the delineation of roles between the MoJ and ASR, ensuring clarity and accountability in the reform process.
Update the 2017 Concept of Administrative Reform.
Ensure the 2017 Concept aligns with the Uzbekistan 2030 Strategy.
Consider new cutting-edge priorities that are included in OECD member country plans, for instance on participation, the use of AI and technology in the public service or human-centred public services.
Enhance inter-ministerial co-ordination.
Strengthening mechanisms for inter-ministerial co-ordination is crucial to ensure coherence and synergy in PAR efforts. Establishing dedicated councils or inter-institutional committees can facilitate collaboration and streamline decision-making processes on the public administration reform agenda. This could include a high-level committee at the ministerial level that meets once a year, and quarterly working group meetings with representatives from all key ministries led by the MoJ and the ASR.
Ensure regular consultations and information-sharing sessions among ministries to help align reform priorities and avoid duplication of efforts.
Streamline priority reforms across strategic documents.
Harmonise priorities between the country’s active long-term strategic documents, namely the Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022-2026 and Uzbekistan 2030 Strategy. Aligning reform objectives and action plans between these documents can enhance coherence and focus on PAR efforts, maximising their impact on socio-economic development.
Improve monitoring and evaluation frameworks.
Ensure the use of the KPIs that are mentioned in the Uzbekistan 2030 Strategy, such as achieving complete digitalisation of public services and ensuring 100 percent coverage of state civil servants with continuous professional development, and to cascade them into the other documents.
Develop KPIs linked to actionable inputs, enabling more effective monitoring and evaluation of reform outcomes.
Conduct regular reviews and assessments to identify areas for improvement and adjust strategies accordingly.
Promote skill and professional development in the civil service.
Prioritise training and professional development programmes to equip civil servants with the necessary competencies to navigate complex implementation challenges effectively. This includes training in project management, data analysis, policy evaluation, and other relevant areas.
Foster a culture of continuous learning and innovation to help cultivate a skilled and adaptive workforce capable of driving sustainable socio-economic development (see Chapter 3 for more details).
Establish effective performance management and feedback mechanisms.
Implement mechanisms for integrating feedback from stakeholders, including NGOs, the private sector and citizens.
Ensure active stakeholder participation in the reform process, for instance through online feedback platforms or national dialogues. Engaging stakeholders in decision-making and policy formulation can enhance the legitimacy and effectiveness of PAR initiatives.
By implementing these recommendations, Uzbekistan can accelerate progress towards building a transparent, efficient, and citizen-centred system of public administration that drives socio-economic development and improves the quality of life for its citizens.
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