This chapter examines the skills needed to support the development of the mining sector in the nine Central African countries: Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It begins by taking stock of levels of education, employment and skills development in the region, before presenting a case study on the skills required in the mining sector to allow Central Africa to take full advantage of the rising global demand for critical minerals. It assesses the skill sets of workers undertaking different types of mining operations, and then analyses how the types of skills needed are changing. Finally, this chapter proposes a range of public policies to ensure the supply of skills better aligns with the demand for skills in the mining and related sectors.
Africa's Development Dynamics 2024
Chapter 4. Skills for mining in Central Africa
Abstract
In Brief
Central Africa is experiencing a skills shortage, a situation that contributes to the high proportion of vulnerable (74%) and low-skilled jobs. A mismatch between level of education and employment has also been observed. In 2020, only 18% of young people had completed secondary school, and of these, less than 10% had chosen to undertake technical or vocational education and training (TVET). Furthermore, the quality of learning could be improved: the average learning-adjusted years of schooling stands at 4.5 years, compared with 5.1 years for the rest of Africa.
The region boasts large reserves of strategic minerals that could be harnessed to meet growing global demand. It accounts for almost 70% of the world’s cobalt production, 30% of tantalum production and 20% of manganese production. The lack of skilled workers, infrastructure and effective governance is holding back local mineral processing and job creation. Skills development would help the region integrate into value chains. It would also make it possible to train the workforce on new technologies and facilitate adaptation to climate-change-associated risks.
To better align skills with jobs, policy makers will need to focus on four priority measures: 1) implementing national and regional strategies based on reliable data to anticipate demand; 2) stimulating public–private co-operation to improve TVET; 3) developing training programmes for artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) workers; 4) strengthening governance for better resource allocation.
Skills for mining in Central Africa (infographic)
Central Africa regional profile
Figure 4.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending in Central Africa, 2000-22
Note: Vulnerable employment includes formal and informal self-employed (own-account) workers and contributing family members but excludes informal salaried employees. As an approximation of informal employment, it is used here to show long-term trends, as time series data on informal employment is missing for most African countries. Labour productivity is measured as the constant gross domestic product (GDP) in 2017 international USD at purchasing power parity (PPP) prices, divided by the population of employed people in thousands.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org; World Bank (2023[2]), World Development Indicators (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators; and IMF (2023[3]), World Economic Outlook (database), https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO.
Figure 4.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation in Central Africa, 2021
Note: “Technicians” include associate professionals; “Skilled elementary occupations” include skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers, and elementary occupations; and “Operators and assemblers” include plant and machine operators and assemblers.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/.
Central African countries are facing a major skills shortage, which has resulted in a preponderance of low-skilled jobs and widespread informality
The level and quality of education are generally lower in Central Africa than in other regions of the continent. The average years of schooling is 6.4 years across Central Africa; higher than West Africa (5.5 years), but lower than the rest of the continent (6.7 years). However, when the average number of years of schooling is adjusted to account for the quality of learning, this average falls to 4.5 years in Central Africa, compared with 5.1 years for the continent as a whole. This figure ranges from 6 years in Gabon to 2.6 years in the Central African Republic (Figure 4.3). By 2020, the number of young people who had completed secondary or higher education had risen to 18%, compared with 9% in 2000 (AUC/OECD, 2021[4]). Moreover, on average, only 8% of secondary school students are enrolled in vocational training programmes, ranging from 19% in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (hereafter “DR Congo”) and Cameroon to less than 2% in Chad and the Republic of the Congo (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2023[5]). Differences between genders and between rural and urban areas contribute to gaps in basic skills (Figure 4.4).
Figure 4.3. Average years of schooling and learning-adjusted years of schooling in Central Africa, 2020
Note: Learning-adjusted years of schooling merge the quantity and quality of education into one metric, reflecting that similar durations of schooling can yield different learning outcomes. See Filmer et al. (2020[6]) for a detailed methodology.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2023[7]), Education Statistics (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/education-statistics-%5E-all-indicators.
Figure 4.4. Percentage of adolescents in lower secondary school achieving proficiency in reading and mathematics in Central Africa, most recent year observed (2013-22)
Source: Authors’ calculations based on UNESCO (2023[8]), World Inequality Database on Education (database), https://www.education-inequalities.org/.
Most jobs in the region remain low-skilled and informal. Jobs in agriculture, forestry and fishing accounted for more than half (57%) of all jobs in Central Africa in 2021 (compared with 74% in the early 2000s). The share of jobs in retail and wholesale, meanwhile, rose considerably, from 9% to 20% over the same period. In 2021, 74% of workers were in vulnerable employment (self-employed or unpaid family workers), and almost 95% were in the informal sector. The share of skilled workers ranges from an average of 43% in Gabon to less than 10% in the DR Congo and Chad. The majority of women workers and rural workers are employed as unskilled workers (Figure 4.5). Labour productivity remains low (around USD 5 700 per worker in 2022) and below the level in other African regions (USD 16 000 on average).
Figure 4.5. Percentage of workers in skilled occupations in Central Africa, by gender and place of residence, 2019 or latest year available
Note: Data are drawn from nationally representative demographic and health surveys (DHS) collected between 2010 and 2019. Occupational categories were divided into skilled and unskilled occupations as follows: skilled occupations include professional, technical, managerial, clerical and skilled manual work; unskilled occupations include sales, agriculture, household and domestic work, services and unskilled manual labour.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on United States Agency for International Development (USAID)/DHS (2023[9]), Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) Program (database), https://dhsprogram.com/.
Despite the dominance of low-skilled jobs, the majority of workers do not have the required level of education for their occupation. In Cameroon 61% of workers and in Chad 84% of workers are employed in jobs for which they are underqualified (Figure 4.6). Women and self-employed workers are more likely to be underqualified for their job. A small proportion (around 13%) of salaried workers have a higher level of education than required for their occupation. This finding is echoed in other surveys: in the Republic of the Congo, 49% of young people do not have the required level of education and 24% consider themselves underqualified for their current occupation (Morsy and Mukasa, 2019[10]).
Figure 4.6. Percentage of workers who have a higher or lower level of education than required for their occupation in Central Africa, 2022 or latest year available
Note: Mismatches are assessed using the normative approach, by comparing the educational requirements for each occupational group set out in the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) with the educational level of each person with that occupation. Calculations are based on data available from national labour force statistics or other representative household surveys with an employment component.
Source: Compiled by the authors based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates, (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/.
New skills and knowledge, which could help transform the economic sector, are distributed unequally. This includes digital skills: in Gabon, for example, over 50% of respondents are able to use a mobile bank account without the help of a third party, compared with 15% in the DR Congo (Figure 4.7). Similarly, around 60% of respondents in Cameroon, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, and São Tomé and Príncipe had heard of climate change, yet this figure drops to 17% among those with no education. Awareness of climate change also differs between people who live in rural areas (49%) and those who live in urban areas (66%) (Afrobarometer, 2023[11]).
Figure 4.7. Percentage of respondents able to use a mobile bank account without the help of a third party in Central Africa
Source: Demirgüç-Kunt et al. (2021[12]), The Global Findex Database (database), https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/globalfindex.
Central African countries struggle to retain highly skilled migrants, who often leave Africa, while less-skilled migrants remain in Central Africa or on the continent. In 2020, 45% of Central Africans with secondary or lower education (“poorly educated”) lived in another African region, compared with 38% in another Central African country and 17% on another continent. Among those with higher education (“highly educated”), 61% lived on other continents, 24% in another African region and only 15% in another Central African country (World Bank, 2023[13]). Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and the Republic of the Congo attract poorly educated migrants, mainly to exploit their natural resources. Only Gabon attracts a higher share of skilled migrants, most of whom come from the rest of the continent (Figure 4.8).
Figure 4.8. Migrants by level of education, origin and destination (Central Africa, 2020)
Note: Migrants per 1 000 inhabitants. Negative numbers show emigration. “Low-educated” refers to individuals with secondary or lower education. “High-educated” refers to those with tertiary or higher education.
Source: World Bank (2023[13]), Global Bilateral Migration (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/global-bilateral-migration.
The region has significant mineral wealth to supply global demand, but little of the material extracted is processed locally due to a lack of skills and infrastructure
Critical minerals are a strategic resource for the development of Central Africa
Against a backdrop of growing global demand, Central Africa has significant strategic mining resources. Its mineral deposits, among the largest and most diverse in the world, are a strategic resource for many industries. The DR Congo holds the majority (47%) of the region’s proven mineral reserves, followed by Gabon (17%), the Central African Republic (11%) and Cameroon (9%) (Romel Touka, 2015[14]). According to official statistics, 55 different minerals are present in the DR Congo’s subsoil, but only 12 are actually mined. Central Africa ranks among the world’s leading producers of cobalt, tantalum, copper and manganese, all of which have been identified as critical minerals for the energy transition (Table 4.1; Box 4.1).
Table 4.1. Minerals extracted in Central Africa
Note: Data not available for São Tomé and Príncipe.
Source: (Reichl and Schatz[15]), World Mining Data 2023, https://www.world-mining-data.info/wmd/downloads/PDF/WMD2023.pdf.
Box 4.1. Change in global demand for critical minerals, and implications for Central Africa
The energy and digital transitions are having a significant impact on demand for minerals. These transitions have led to a rise in demand for “critical” minerals, i.e. those needed to produce technologies such as digital equipment, electric cars, solar panels, wind turbines and other low-carbon power-generation systems. While the International Energy Agency (IEA) lists 33 critical minerals,1 there is no universally agreed definition, given that every country or organisation has different strategic priorities (Hendriwardani and Ramdoo, 2022[16]). Projections based on international commitments to carbon neutrality suggest that by 2040, demand will rise more than three-fold for cobalt (+221%), 2.5-fold for copper (+185%), two-fold for zinc (+110%), seven-fold for manganese (+609%) and eight-fold for tantalum (+700%) (IEA, 2023[17]).
Given its significant deposits of critical minerals (Table 4.1), Central Africa intends to take advantage of these opportunities (Bazilian, 2023[18]), but is struggling to develop a local mineral processing industry, mainly due to a lack of skills and infrastructure, and weak governance (ECA, 2011[19]). Since 2022, the African Union – in partnership with the African Development Bank (AfDB) and several United Nations agencies – has been working on the African Green Minerals Strategy. This strategy aims to complement existing mining development policies by encouraging the strategic exploitation of critical minerals – including 14 priority minerals2 – based on four pillars:
1. Advancing mineral development (conducting feasibility studies and implementing infrastructure).
2. Developing human capital and technological capacity by identifying the skills needed to integrate into value chains (mining, processing and manufacturing new technologies).
3. Building regional value chains to advance natural resource-based industrialisation and access to larger markets through the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA).
4. Promoting mineral stewardship (AfDB, 2022[20]).
1. IEA lists 33 critical minerals: Arsenic, Boron, Cadmium, Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Gallium, Germanium, Gold, Graphite, Hafnium, Indium, Iridium, Lead, Magnesium, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Niobium, Palladium, Platinum, Rare-earth elements (Neodymium, Dysprosium, Praseodymium and Terbium, among others), Selenium, Silicon, Silver, Tantalum, Tellurium, Tin, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Zinc, Zirconium (IEA, 2023[93]).
2. Artisanal and small-scale mining focuses on the following critical minerals: Aluminium, Cadmium, Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Iron/Steel, Graphite, Lithium, Manganese, Nickel, Platinum, Rare Earths, Vanadium, Zinc, (AfDB, 2022[20]).
The mining sector accounts for a significant share of the region’s revenues and exports, and is an integral part of national job creation strategies. Mining revenue accounts for 9.4% of Central Africa’s GDP, compared with just 2% for Africa as a whole. The DR Congo makes the largest contribution to the region’s total revenue, accounting for around 29% of GDP. Copper and cobalt account for almost 90% of the country’s exports. Similarly, minerals account for over 50% of exports from the Central African Republic and at least 30% from Burundi (Figure 4.9). Mining operations are less labour-intensive, but more capital-intensive, than other sectors. In 2017–2021, job creation linked to investment in the extractive sector stood at 1.3 jobs per USD million invested, compared with 3.8 jobs created per USD million invested in manufacturing (AUC/OECD, 2023[21]). However, indirect employment, particularly in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM), is between three and six times greater than direct employment and represents a strategic challenge for the region (Östensson and Roe, 2017[22]).
Figure 4.9. Minerals as a share of total exports from Central African countries, 2022
Source: CEPII (2024[23]), BACI: International Trade Database at the Product-level (database), www.cepii.fr/cepii/fr/bdd_modele/presentation.asp?id=37.
Most critical mineral production, however, is exported and not processed locally. At the global level, the People’s Republic of China (hereafter “China”) dominates mineral processing, refining 73% of cobalt, 40% of copper, 59% of lithium, 67% of nickel and 95% of rare earth minerals (IEA, 2021[24]). The lack of infrastructure and governance, as well as the high cost of skilled labour and services, have hampered the development of mineral processing in Central Africa. To illustrate: despite being the world’s leading producer of cobalt, the DR Congo ranks seventh among cobalt-refining countries and accounts for just 1% of global supply, after Madagascar (2%) and ahead of Morocco (1%) (Bazilian, 2023[18]). Similarly, Gabon, the world’s second-largest producer of raw manganese, has only been processing the ore since 2015 thanks to the creation of the Moanda Metallurgical Complex (Fliess, Idsardi and Rossouw, 2017[25]).
The Africa Mining Vision and the African Green Minerals Strategy each propose a roadmap for better integration into value chains. The African Union’s Africa Mining Vision, published in 2009, provides a framework for the strategic use of minerals to improve: i) the collection of high-quality geological data ii) the quality of contract negotiations iii) the governance of the sector iv) the management of the financial resources generated; v) infrastructure and vi) the development of ASM. This framework stresses the importance of human capital development and skills acquisition (Box 4.2), but its implementation has been slow and too few stakeholders are aware of its existence. The implementation of the African Green Minerals Strategy since 2022 has injected new political momentum into efforts to harness the growing demand for critical minerals for regional industrialisation (Box 4.1).
Box 4.2. Skills development under the 2009 Africa Mining Vision
The Africa Mining Vision is a collaboration between the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), the African Development Bank (AfDB), the African Union, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). It seeks to harness mining resources for industrialisation.
In terms of skills, the Africa Mining Vision aims to:
1. Nurture human resource development through supporting skills acquisition, facilitating research and development, and building knowledge networks between academia, the private sector, governments and other stakeholders.
2. Facilitate the transfer of technology and skills from multinational to national companies.
3. Create training centres of excellence and better align certifications and standards.
4. Mobilise financing from pan-African banks to train engineers and technicians specialised in mineral exploration, mining, processing and trading.
Source: African Union (2009[26]), Africa Mining Vision, https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/30995-doc-africa_mining_vision_english_1.pdf.
The skills shortage contributes to weak local recruitment by foreign investors
The development of the mining industry is mainly driven by the influx of foreign investment. Mining production is mainly controlled by multinationals,1 a trend encouraged by the pro-investment policies introduced in the 1980s and 1990s (Radley, 2023[27]). In the DR Congo, foreign direct investment (FDI) flows have mainly targeted mining, with a 17-fold increase between 2002 and 2012, from USD 188 million to USD 3.3 billion. However, it is not uncommon for national companies (Table 4.2) to have a stake in the subsidiaries of foreign mining companies, enabling them to collect dividends from the profits generated. In Gabon, Société Équatoriale des Mines has a 40% stake in Compagnie Minière de l’Ogooué (COMILOG), the country’s top manganese producer. Similarly, in the DR Congo, the state holds the Kamoa-Kakula Copper Complex jointly with two foreign companies: Ivanhoe Mines (Canada) and Zijin Mining (China) (Wagner, 2023[28]).
Table 4.2. National public mining companies in Central Africa
Note: São Tomé and Príncipe has no state-owned mining companies.
Source: Compiled by the authors.
The prevalence of low-skilled workers in the sector is holding back investment and local recruitment. Some investors are put off by the lack of qualifications among the local labour force. This may drive them to recruit foreign workers. Nearly 75% of investors surveyed cite the lack of locally available skills as a barrier to investment in the DR Congo (Figure 4.10). In Cameroon, the evidence shows that the lack of local skills has pushed Chinese companies in the gold-mining sector to employ workers from China, while the majority of local staff are employed as drivers, excavator operators, guards and, occasionally, geological technicians. Consequently, although mining investment has increased employment opportunities for local people, these opportunities are limited to jobs with less responsibility and lower pay than those entrusted to foreign workers (Weng et al., 2015[29]).
Figure 4.10. Share of mining companies citing lack of skills as a barrier to investment, 2022
Source: Mejía and Aliakbari (2023[30]), Annual Survey of Mining Companies 2022, https://www.fraserinstitute.org/studies/annual-survey-of-mining-companies-2022.
To make their workforce more employable, governments in the region are increasingly emphasising the local content of mining operations. To increase opportunities for local capacity building, the majority of Central African governments have recently amended their local content policies (local sourcing requirements for foreign investors in terms of goods and services, personnel, financing, etc.) through their mining code reforms. Local content policies now impose local recruitment and subcontracting quotas and obligations related to training and skills development (AMLA, 2024[31]). In the DR Congo, for example, the 2018 mining code introduced local recruitment requirements (Table 4.3). Foreign investors must organise training to enable workers to acquire the skills needed to hold managerial and executive positions within ten years of starting commercial production (IGF, 2021[32]). However, certain requirements that set specific levels (e.g. recruitment quotas not supported by appropriate training policies, or local sourcing obligations) can introduce distortions that deter investors (Korinek and Ramdoo, 2017[33]; OECD, 2016[34]).
Table 4.3. DR Congo employee quota by job category (2018 Mining Code)
Source: IGF (2021[32]), Impact of New Mining Technologies on Local Procurement in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, International Institute for Sustainable Development, https://www.iisd.org/system/files/2021-12/impact-new-mining-technologies-democratic-republic-congo-en.pdf.
The prevalence of artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM), the main source of employment in the sector, represents a major challenge for skills development
Most jobs in the mining sector are in ASM, which is often informal. On a global scale, ASM employs the majority of the mining industry’s workforce (around 25% of tin, tantalum and diamond production; 80% of sapphire production). More than 2.6 million people are employed in ASM in Central Africa, including: 2 million in the DR Congo; 310 000 in Chad; 200 000 in the Central African Republic; 44 000 in Cameroon; 34 000 in Burundi; 15 000 in Equatorial Guinea; and 10 000 in Gabon (DELVE, 2024[35]). In the DR Congo, artisanal miners produce around 13% to 20% of the world’s cobalt supply (OECD, 2019[36]). On average, 80% to 90% of artisanal and small-scale miners worldwide work informally. As a result, this sector is associated with many social risks (Box 4.3).
Box 4.3. Difficulties faced by ASM workers
Workers’ pay is generally low and also differs by gender. While a male miner earns an average equivalent to USD 15.38 per week, women’s earnings are more difficult to assess. Ore washing, for example, provides them with a share of pre-washing production, which is estimated at between 0.5 and 4 pans, depending on the workload.
Artisanal workers face a number of health and safety risks, including:
-
Landslides due to unstable excavations.
-
Serious injuries due to a lack of safety equipment (helmets, safety boots, etc.).
-
Occupational illnesses linked to exposure to toxic substances or mineral dust. In Central Africa, for example, the use of mercury to separate gold from other ores often exceeds the maximum exposure threshold of 1.0 µg/m set by the World Health Organization (WHO).
-
Musculoskeletal problems due to the demanding nature of the work carried out under difficult conditions.
-
Accidents linked to the use of unsafe tools and machinery.
-
Mental health problems due to stressful and dangerous working conditions.
Human rights violations are also common in the sector. Children’s involvement in mining remains high in Central Africa. In the DR Congo, for example, at least 40 000 children work in the cobalt mines of the Katanga region in extremely dangerous conditions, without adequate safety equipment and for meagre wages (UNCTAD, 2020[37]). The expansion of industrial cobalt and copper mines has also led to artisanal mine workers and local populations being forcibly evicted, as well as violence and arson (Amnesty International, 2023[38]).
Source: Chuhan-Pole, Dabalen and Land (2020[39]), Mining in Africa : are local communities better off, http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/517391487795570281/Mining-in-Africa-are-local-communities-better-off; Goltz and Barnwal (2019[40]), Mines: The local wealth and health effects of mineral mining in developing countries, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.05.005.
These jobs often rely on low-skilled workers and occupations requiring basic skills. ASM workers mainly use basic tools and equipment for the extraction and initial processing of minerals. They are organised into teams of 10 to 20 miners who work together in a specific zone, on the surface or underground, accompanied by support teams (Rupprecht, 2015[41]). In the Central African Republic, a study of over 330 artisanal gold and diamond mining sites shows that the majority of workers perform support tasks (excavation, washing, sorting, transport, etc.), with women accounting for around a third of the workforce. However, there are gender differences in the division of labour. Women mainly wash, transport or sort ore, while men mainly excavate it (Jaillon and De Brier, 2019[42]).
The informal, sometimes seasonal, nature of these activities limits training opportunities, especially for women. Artisanal mine workers often undertake other livelihood activities, such as farming. Although there are some formalised ASM communities (that set up co-operatives, or obtain operating licences), they often lack the incentives, funding and skills to comply with the requirements of formal operations (Table 4.4). Moreover, they often do not benefit from national strategies for incubating or promoting small and medium-sized enterprises, which limits the expansion of their operations and their formalisation. Women generally face additional barriers linked to prevailing social norms, which prevent them from accessing better-paid work and training initiatives (McQuilken et al., 2024[43]).
Table 4.4. Skills required by workers to improve the productivity of ASM in Central Africa
Source: Produced by the authors based on Rupprecht (2015[41]), “Needs Analysis for Capacity Building of Artisanal Miners in Central Africa”, https://www.saimm.co.za/Conferences/BM2015/045-Rupprecht.pdf.
Capacity building will be crucial to increase local processing and adapt to technological developments and climate change
A broad set of skills is needed to integrate downstream segments of critical mineral value chains
Acquiring the technical skills needed to process and add value to minerals is a priority for countries in the region. The mining sector provides three main categories of jobs, which require related skills.
-
Specific jobs account for around 30% of the workforce. They can be found in all segments of the value chain, and require specific technical skills for exploration, feasibility studies, mining operations, processing, adding value, etc. (Table 4.5).
-
Cross-functional jobs account for 40% of the workforce and are present throughout the process. They include, for example, civil engineering and electrical installation work, machine operation, industrial maintenance and general safety.
-
Administrative or support roles account for around 30% of the workforce and allow companies to operate effectively. Key examples include roles in management, general services (secretarial, accounting, finance, human resources), legal services, communications and inventory management.
Table 4.5. Technical skills and occupations required in critical mineral value chains with a strong presence in Central Africa
Source: CA Mining (2024[44]), Mineral Processing Jobs In Africa, https://mining-recruitment-jobs.com/mineral-processing-africa/; Glencore (2024[45]), Zinc, https://www.glencore.ch/fr/was-wir-tun/metalle-und-mineralien/zink; The Raw Material Outlook (2021[46]), Raw Material Outlook Platform, https://www.rawmaterialoutlook.org/; ISE (2024[47]), Prix, occurrence, extraction et utilisation du tantale, https://fr.institut-seltene-erden.de/.
Business, entrepreneurial and soft skills will also be important for the development and local ownership of mining activities. In Central Africa, few private national operators are active in the mining sector. Setting up a local company or accessing management positions in foreign companies requires high-level managerial skills. Interpersonal and language skills, as well as adaptability, sometimes play a more important role than technical skills in the recruitment of local people by foreign mining companies (Rubbers, 2020[48]). In addition, some local managers noted their lack of skills in relation to project set-up and financing (Le Bec, 2012[49]). Finally, soft skills such as communication, leadership, teamwork and problem-solving are essential on extraction sites in order to maintain a safe working environment and take effective decisions to prevent accidents.
Integration into downstream segments of value chains requires the development of advanced skills in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). Battery production and maintenance, for example, require advanced STEM skills (including chemistry, mechanical engineering and electrical engineering) (AfDB, 2022[20]). Yet, at present, the number of graduates from higher education STEM programmes remains low in Central Africa. In the countries for which data are available, the higher education enrolment rate is below 15%, and less than 20% of higher education students are enrolled on STEM courses (Figure 4.11).
Figure 4.11. Percentage of STEM graduates and gross higher education enrolment ratio, 2015-23 average
Note: Gross enrolment ratios represent the total number of students enrolled in higher education, expressed as a percentage of the total population in the five-year age group following completion of secondary education.
Source: UNESCO (2023[5]), Institute for Statistics (database), http://data.uis.unesco.org.
If mining activities are to modernise, local skills must adapt. The growing use of new technologies will impact workers differently depending on their skill level and will require them to adapt their skills. The number of large-scale operations adopting new technologies and semi-mechanised artisanal mines is increasing in some regions (IPIS/USAID, 2022[50]). While the adoption of these new technologies can improve mine efficiency, worker safety and environmental performance, this can only happen if local workers are properly trained. As illustrated by the case of the Kibali gold mine in the DR Congo (Box 4.4), the mechanisation of activities presents a risk for the local low- or semi-skilled workforce due to the replacement of certain positions, such as transporters or rock crushers (Rupprecht, 2017[51]). It should be noted, however, that at the same time, new, better-paid jobs will be created in highly skilled occupations (information technology and engineering).
Box 4.4. The Kibali gold mine in the DR Congo: a case study of modern mining
The Kibali gold mine has invested in a fully automated system, optimising the volume of labour required.
-
An automated ore handling system, the only one of its kind in Africa, including driverless loaders and a single haulage drive, speeds up transport with minimal losses.
-
Drones monitor shafts and inventory on the surface, and the system is controlled from a secure control room, enabling the safe management of loaders operating at depths of up to 800 metres.
-
The mining company has invested in training local people to fill new positions. However, it employs only six people at its Kibali offices, given that most of its activities are managed from abroad.
Source: IGF/IISD (2019[52]), New Tech, New Deal, https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/new-tech-new-deal-technology.pdf?q=sites/default/files/publications/new-tech-new-deal-technology.pdf.
New skills are needed to manage climate change-associated risks and support the sustainable development of the sector
Anticipating climate change-associated risks requires the acquisition of specific skills. Extreme events (fluctuations in temperature and precipitation) put significant pressure on the integrity of mining operations, particularly open pit slopes and tailing storage facilities. Tailing dam failures can have disastrous consequences (Bellois, 2022[53]). The increased frequency and intensity of heat waves can also reduce employee productivity and safety (Nunfam et al., 2019[54]). Climate change has already had a negative effect on the workforce at mining sites. In Chad, for example, climate-related hazards are pushing people who depend on agriculture into ASM (GEF/UNEP, 2022[55]), which is exacerbating water stress. In the DR Congo, the southern region is more exposed to the risk of drought, with a 50% increase in the frequency of drought periods predicted by 2100 (USAID/SWP, 2022[56]). This is likely to have a major impact on local production of copper, the most water-intensive mineral (Figure 4.12). It is therefore essential that the workforce acquire the new skills needed to implement tailored practices and monitor risks more closely.
Figure 4.12. Global water scarcity footprint by mineral
Note: The water scarcity footprint is calculated by multiplying global water consumption by the Water Stress Index, as defined by Meißner (2021[57]).
Source: Produced by the authors based on Meißner (2021[57]), The Impact of Metal Mining on Global Water Stress and Regional Carrying Capacities – A GIS-Based Water Impact Assessment, https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10120120.
Green skills can help monitor and mitigate the environmental impacts of mining in Central Africa. Mining has environmental effects that are direct (degradation of soils, rivers and biosystems) and indirect (degradation due to infrastructure construction and the influx of rural populations attracted by employment opportunities) (Gourdon, Kinda and Lapeyronie, 2024[58]). In Central Africa, these indirect effects are having a significant impact on areas with high levels of biodiversity, such as the lowlands of Cameroon-Gabon and of eastern DR Congo (Edwards et al., 2013[59]). Green skills can provide an effective way of monitoring and addressing these impacts (measuring air and water quality, managing waste and protecting biodiversity) (Mining Qualifications Authority, 2018[60]).
Abandoned mines can be a source of physical, chemical and biological hazards, which create a need for green skills specific to the local context. Phytoremediation (the use of living plants to absorb pollution and purify contaminated soil, air and water) is an ecologically and economically viable solution and it would be worth developing skills in this area at the regional level. However, the nature of the pollutants produced varies depending on the ore and the context (in Cameroon, radioactive deposits of Uranium-235; in the DR Congo, mercury (Hg), which affects crops, soils and aquatic sediments). These wide-ranging risks and effects call for skills and tailored knowledge; however, the fact that these are scarce is likely to hamper the protection of natural ecosystems (UNESCO, 2019[61]; Odoh et al., 2019[62]).
Developing new skills in related sectors such as renewable energies will help reduce the sector’s carbon footprint while cutting production costs. Electricity supply accounts for 10% to 25% of the total cost of a mining project and may have to compete with other economic activities and household consumption (McMahon, Banerjee and Romo, 2016[63]). Given that power outages are common in the region (10.2 power outages per month on average between 2013 and 2019, compared with 7.6 for the African continent as a whole2), mining companies often resort to polluting and less-efficient means of power generation, such as diesel and heavy fuel oil (Alova, 2018[64]). However, projects based on clean energy seem to be on the rise: in the DR Congo, a public–private partnership between Kamoa Copper and Société Nationale d’Electricité (SNEL) aims to increase the supply of hydroelectric power (Mining Review Africa, 2021[65]).
Central African governments have several policy levers at their disposal to strengthen skills and promote better positioning within mining value chains
National and regional strategies, underpinned by reliable data, support skills development and help anticipate changes in demand for these services
Local skills development must be supported by national and regional strategies to promote integration into value chains. Countries in the region are beginning to develop regional and continental co-operation mechanisms, notably through the implementation of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), in order to strengthen their position within global value chains. In 2022, the DR Congo and Zambia signed a bilateral agreement with a view to creating a regional electric vehicle battery manufacturing industry (AfDB, 2022[20]). The cross-border project will be implemented in two special economic zones (Katanga province in the DR Congo and Copperbelt province in Zambia) (Box 4.5). The production of electric cars and solar panels is also driving demand for rare earth minerals; significant reserves can be found in South Africa, Burundi and Malawi. Closer regional co-operation would make it easier to identify each country’s position within value chains, so as to target the skills that need to be developed (AfDB, 2021[66]).
Box 4.5. African Centre of Excellence for Advanced Battery Research in DR Congo
The African Centre of Excellence for Advanced Battery Research (CAEB), opened in Lubumbashi in April 2022, trains technicians for a plant that will manufacture batteries and electric cars “made in the DR Congo”. Affiliated with the polytechnic schools of the University of Lubumbashi, the CAEB is the product of co-operation between the DR Congo and Zambia, which together contain almost 70% of global copper and cobalt reserves.
The centre offers Master’s-level courses focused on research and innovation in materials chemistry, process engineering, waste management and battery design. This initiative is designed to meet growing international demand, thereby contributing to the development of the battery industry on the African continent. The CAEB is working with the University of Zambia and the Copperbelt University, in partnership with the private sector, to identify skills and research needs, and design relevant training programmes.
Collecting relevant data would make it possible to better anticipate the demand for skills in the mining sector and to assess the potential for transfer to other sectors. High-quality employment data would help clarify skills needs, develop strategic plans to strengthen these skills, and identify opportunities in related sectors (infrastructure, local equipment manufacturing, etc.). This approach has proved particularly successful in Chile, where the Mining Skills Council conducts surveys of mining project managers from the feasibility stage onwards to identify skills gaps (AfDB/BMGF, 2015[67]). Most Central African countries currently lack an operational mechanism to anticipate skills needs, often due to a lack of co-ordination between ministries (Werquin and Foka, 2020[68]). However, national initiatives are emerging for specific projects:
In the Republic of the Congo, the Ministry of Technical and Vocational Education and Training is working with international partners to set up a national employment observatory to collect accurate data that will be used to develop tailored training programmes (Nzaou, 2020[69]).
In the DR Congo, an apprenticeship programme, funded by local mining companies and targeting young people aged 15–17 years working in ASM, offers six-month training courses in sectors identified using data collected on local needs (IT, mechanics, welding, metallurgy, livestock farming, hairdressing and sewing) (PACT, 2020[70]).
Fostering co-operation between the public and private sectors can improve the supply, quality and relevance of technical and vocational education and training
It is crucial to improve the supply of training and the quality of TVET. The creation of mining schools and training centres dedicated to mining-related occupations bears witness to the desire to increase the number of skilled workers in Central Africa. In Cameroon, for example, the School of Geology and Mining Engineering, which opened in 2011, trains engineers to specialise in the management of prospecting, exploration and mining projects (Table 4.6). At present, however, evaluations of TVET providers in the region reveal weaknesses linked to a lack of funding, outdated teaching methods and materials, and a shortage of adequately qualified teachers (Werquin and Foka, 2020[68]). Enhancing the quality of training courses requires a gradual increase in the number of courses on offer, coupled with an increase in the number and expertise of trainers. Technical skills (e.g. STEM) and soft skills (e.g. leadership, communication or complex problem-solving) should be covered.
Table 4.6. Examples of mining training institutions in Central Africa
Source: Compiled by the authors.
Co-operation between TVET institutions and stakeholders in large-scale and ASM operations boosts skills development. Strengthening partnerships between TVET institutions and the private sector improves the relevance and quality of teaching and training (Werquin and Foka, 2020[68]).
Since 2015, the Gabonese government has focused on developing local infrastructure and skills to enable manganese to be processed locally. The creation of Moanda School of Mining and Metallurgy, in co-operation with the private sector (COMILOG) and European universities, will help to achieve to this objective (EU, 2013[71]). Of the 102 graduates from the classes of 2016–2021, 92 are working in the mining sector, including 50 at COMILOG (Gabon Review, 2022[72]).
In DR Congo, the Kamoto Copper Company (KCC), which operates in the copper and cobalt sector, works with local technical training institutions to offer 50 students a two-year apprenticeship programme aligned with their training programmes (Hako, 2023[73]).
Training ASM workers helps to improve their productivity, promote women’s employment and encourage sustainable development in the sector
Building the capacities of ASM workers helps to improve their working conditions and productivity. The success of the skills development programmes for ASM workers is a function of: i) site-specific training programmes ii) adequate consultation with miners and the local community before designing and planning programmes iii) trainers who are recognised within the community iv) objectives for improving production and minimising health and environmental impacts that are feasible and cost-effective v) technical, regulatory and financial support from local governments and vi) a long-term presence enabling in-depth monitoring, flexible implementation and consistent engagement with communities (Stocklin-Weinberg, Veiga and Marshall, 2019[74]).
In the DR Congo, the Project for the Responsible Supply of Tin, Tungsten and Tantalum, implemented by the non-governmental organisation (NGO) Pact in partnership with the government and the private sector, provides training for ASM workers to increase safety and productivity, and facilitate the formalisation of artisanal mining sites. From 2021 to 2024, the project has trained more than 7 200 miners, 400 government officials and 700 community members to strengthen the application of the 2018 mining code (PACT, 2024[75]).
Investment in green skills by international partners and local governments can reduce the environmental impact of mining and create jobs. For example, Belgian Development Co-operation is funding tertiary-level mobility programmes focusing on sustainable mining practices in geology in Burundi, the DR Congo and the Republic of the Congo (Kingdom of Belgium, 2022[76]). Cleaning up abandoned mines can also improve public health, environmental conditions and productivity, through the development of green skills.
Central African countries could take inspiration from the World Bank’s Mining and Environmental Remediation and Improvement Project in the Copperbelt region of Zambia, which aims to restore abandoned and polluted mining areas by creating green income streams. This initiative focuses on improving local skills, restoring contaminated soil and raising public awareness of the risks of pollution (World Bank, 2016[77]).
Awareness-raising programmes reduce discrimination and make it easier for women to access training courses. Such training courses in turn enable women to participate in mining, and open the door to higher-skilled and better-paid jobs (team supervisor, accounting, land surveying or engineering work, machine operation, gem sorting, etc.).
In the Central African Republic, a project launched by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) in partnership with women’s organisations involved in ASM has set up an Innovation Fund for women. Aimed at strengthening women’s involvement in artisanal diamond mining, it is supporting 120 women to undertake training to enable them to participate in prospecting, earth works (especially terracing and backfilling) and diamond trading (Mutemeri et al., 2023[78]).
Strengthening governance is one way to ensure that resources are better allocated to skills
Improving revenue mobilisation and reinvesting the revenue from mining resources can help finance training. Africa’s mineral-rich countries have a mixed record when it comes to mobilising mining revenues. Better continental and international-level co-ordination of tax policies in the mining sector would improve the mobilisation of mining revenues. Indeed, African countries as a whole lose an average of USD 450 million to USD 730 million a year in corporate tax revenues due to tax avoidance by multinational mining companies (Albertin et al., 2021[79]). The application of international standards can help improve governance. Examples include the standards laid down by the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, under which participating countries “commit to disclose information along the extractive industry value chain”.3 Training local officials, with the support of international partners, can help achieve these goals (ATAF/IGF/OECD, 2022[80]). Central African countries can also learn from other mineral-rich countries about how to improve the allocation of mining resources.
Botswana, for example, spends 42% of mineral revenues on education and training, a choice that has significantly improved local skills over the past three decades (AfDB, 2016[81]; Korinek, 2014[82]).
In the Republic of the Congo, the National Support Fund for Employability and Apprenticeship created in 2019 partially finances its activities (support for labour market integration and training) by collecting an apprenticeship levy from companies (FONEA, n.d.[83]).
International partners can support the mobilisation and allocation of funding for skills development. Funds from international donors support the implementation of TVET policies in Central Africa.
In the Republic of the Congo, for example, the government and the AfDB are planning to build two training centres for 7 500 young people in the mining, timber and forestry sectors through the Skills and Human Resource Development Project (AfDB, 2024[84]).
Since 2014, the Development Minerals Programme jointly implemented by the Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States and the European Union (OACPS-EU) has supported workers from over 325 ASM co-operatives to undertake training and enter formal employment. Covering Cameroon, Guinea, Uganda and Zambia, this programme has supported skills development (environment, health, safety) and provided training on co-operative governance, business planning and the legal obligations of artisanal miners (PNUD, 2023[85]).
Implementing and monitoring local content policies can also support skills development, provided they do not distort local markets. The judicious use of local content policies focused on employee training can be worthwhile, if implemented in co-ordination with other skills development policies (Korinek and Ramdoo, 2017[33]). Encouraging a minimum annual investment in training, in partnership with local TVET universities and technical centres, may offer a win-win solution. Indeed, these policies can improve the productivity of foreign companies given that they involve developing the skills of workers who are familiar with local contexts. Central Africa could learn from examples elsewhere on the continent and improve how these policies are monitored (AfDB, 2016[86]).
In Angola, for example, companies in the extractive sector are required to spend USD 0.15 per barrel of oil produced on training Angolan staff. In South Africa, companies must spend 5% of their annual wage bill on human resource development (Ramdoo, 2016[87]).
Developing local skills and using new technologies can facilitate the certification of Central African mines and improve due diligence in the sector. Developing local skills can make it easier to obtain certification for projects, as doing so demonstrates their compliance with environmental, social and governance (ESG) criteria.
In the cobalt sector, the Mutoshi pilot project, a public–private partnership initiative launched in 2019 in the DR Congo, has trained artisanal workers in the sector and enabled them to organise into co-operatives (Johansson de Silva, Strauss and Morisho, 2019[88]). Aligned with the OECD Due Diligence Guidance (OECD, 2016[89]), this project has improved supply chain transparency and increased productivity and incomes for trained workers (Shumsky, 2020[90]).
In Burundi, the programme to strengthen due diligence in the supply of tin, tungsten and tantalum, also aligned with OECD recommendations, has been making use of new technologies since 2019. Employees of the Burundi Office of Mines and Quarries have been trained to use electronic tools to collect data in real time, thus improving transparency in the sector (PACT, 2022[91]).
References
[84] AfDB (2024), Congo - Skills and Human Resource Development Project (PDCRH), https://projectsportal.afdb.org/dataportal/VProject/show/P-CG-IAE-001?lang=en.
[20] AfDB (2022), Approach Paper towards preparation of an African Green Minerals Strategy, https://www.afdb.org/fr/documents/approach-paper-towards-preparation-african-green-minerals-strategy.
[66] AfDB (2021), Rare Earth Element (REE) Value Chain Analysis for Mineral Based Industrialization in Africa, https://www.afdb.org/fr/documents/rare-earth-elements-ree-value-chain-analysis-mineral-based-industrialization-africa.
[86] AfDB (2016), An ANRC step-by-step guide for local content policy formulation and implementation, https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/anrc/ANRC_A_step-by-step_guide_for_local_content_policy_formulation_and_implementation.pdf.
[81] AfDB (2016), Botswana’s Mineral Revenues, Expenditure and Savings Policy, https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/anrc/Botswana_s_mineral_revenues_expenditure_and_saving_policy.pdf.
[67] AfDB/BMGF (2015), Delivering on the Promise: Leveraging Natural Resources to Accelerate Human Development in Africa, https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/Delivering_on_the_promise-Leveraging_natural_resources_to_accelerate_human_development_in_Africa.pdf.
[11] Afrobarometer (2023), Analyse Online, https://www.afrobarometer.org/online-data-analysis/.
[79] Albertin, G. et al. (2021), Tax Avoidance in Sub-Saharan Africa’s Mining Sector, https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/Departmental-Papers-Policy-Papers/Issues/2021/09/27/Tax-Avoidance-in-Sub-Saharan-Africas-Mining-Sector-464850.
[64] Alova, G. (2018), “Integrating renewables in mining : Review of business models and policy implications”, OECD Trade Policy Papers, No. 14, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5bbcdeac-en.
[31] AMLA (2024), African Mining Legislation Atlas, https://www.a-mla.org/en (accessed on 27 November 2023).
[38] Amnesty International (2023), DRC: Powering Change or Business as Usual? Forced evictions at industrial cobalt and copper mines in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, https://www.amnesty.org/fr/documents/AFR62/7009/2023/en/.
[80] ATAF/IGF/OECD (2022), International Taxation and the Extractives Sector, https://www.oecd.org/tax/tax-global/international-taxation-and-the-extractives-sector-course-brochure-en.pdf.
[26] AU (2009), Africa Mining Vision, https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/30995-doc-africa_mining_vision_english_1.pdf.
[21] AUC/OECD (2023), Africa’s Development Dynamics 2023: Investing in Sustainable Development, African Union Commission, Addis Ababa/OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3269532b-en.
[4] AUC/OECD (2021), Africa’s Development Dynamics 2021: Digital Transformation for Quality Jobs, African Union Commission, Addis Ababa/OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3269532b-en.
[18] Bazilian, M. (2023), The State of Critical Minerals Report, https://miningindaba.com/getmedia/209e8ea9-b5b2-45e3-9f20-f5380ed329f0/Payne-Institute-The-State-of-Critical-Minerals-Report-2023.pdf.
[53] Bellois, G. (2022), The Impacts of Climate Change on the Mining Sector, https://www.iisd.org/system/files/2023-09/impacts-climate-change-mining-sector.pdf.
[44] CA Mining (2024), Mineral Processing Jobs In Africa, https://www.glencore.ch/fr/was-wir-tun/metalle-und-mineralien/zink.
[23] CEPII (2024), BACI: International Trade Database at the Product-level, http://www.cepii.fr/CEPII/fr/publications/wp/abstract.asp?NoDoc=2726.
[39] Chuhan-Pole, P., A. Dabalen and B. Land (2020), Mining in Africa : are local communities better off, World Bank, Agence française de développement, http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/517391487795570281/Mining-in-Africa-are-local-communities-better-off.
[35] DELVE (2024), Global Number of People Working in ASM, https://www.delvedatabase.org/ (accessed on 27 November 2023).
[12] Demirgüç-Kunt, A. et al. (2021), The Global Findex Database, https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/globalfindex (accessed on 27 November 2023).
[19] ECA (2011), Mineral resources for Africa’s development, https://hdl.handle.net/10855/21557.
[59] Edwards, D. et al. (2013), Mining and the African Environment, https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12076.
[92] Ericsson, M., O. Löf and A. Löf (2020), “Chinese control over African and global mining-past, present and future”, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13563-020-00233-4.
[71] EU (2013), École des Mines et de la Métallurgie de Moanda, https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/raw-materials/eip/raw-materials-commitment/ecole-des-mines-et-de-la-metallurgie-de-moanda_en.
[6] Filmer, D. et al. (2020), “Learning-adjusted years of schooling (LAYS): Defining a new macro measure of education”, Economics of Education Review, Vol. 77, p. 101971, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2020.101971.
[25] Fliess, B., E. Idsardi and R. Rossouw (2017), “Export controls and competitiveness in African mining and minerals processing industries”, OECD Trade Policy Papers, No. 204, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1fddd828-en.
[3] FMI (2023), World Economic Outlook, https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO (accessed on 27 November 2023).
[83] FONEA (n.d.), Financement et Gouvernance [Financing and Governance], https://www.fonea.cg/Gouvernance.
[72] Gabon Review (2022), “E3MG: 104 étudiants en 4 promotions d’ingénieurs et techniciens de 2016 à 2021 [E3MG: 104 students across 4 classes of engineers and technicians from 2016 to 2021]”, https://www.gabonreview.com/e3mg-104-etudiants-en-4-promotions-dingenieurs-et-techniciens-de-2016-a-2021/#:~:text=L%27%C3%89cole%20des%20mines%20et,le%20pays%20et%20au%2Ddel%C3%A0.
[55] GEF/UNEP (2022), Plan d’action national pour l’exploitation minière artisanale et à petite échelle de l’or au Tchad [National action plan for artisanal and small scale gold mining in Chad], https://minamataconvention.org/sites/default/files/documents/national_action_plan/Chad-ASGM-NAP-2022-FR.pdf.
[45] Glencore (2024), Zinc, https://www.glencore.ch/fr/was-wir-tun/metalle-und-mineralien/zink (accessed on 15 February 2024).
[40] Goltz, J. and P. Barnwal (2019), “Mines: The local wealth and health effects of mineral mining in developing countries”, Journal of Development Economics, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.05.005.
[58] Gourdon, J., H. Kinda and H. Lapeyronie (2024), Vers une exploitation minière responsable en Afrique : quels enjeux pour les pays producteurs de minerais critiques ?, https://www.cairn.info/l-economie-africaine-2024--9782348081903-page-59.htm?contenu=article.
[73] Hako, N. (2023), “DRC: Supporting sustainable skills development for Youth Day”, ESI Africa, https://www.esi-africa.com/business-and-markets/drc-supporting-sustainable-skills-development-for-youth-day/.
[16] Hendriwardani, M. and I. Ramdoo (2022), Critical Minerals: A Primer, https://www.iisd.org/publications/brief/critical-minerals-primer.
[93] IEA (2023), Final List of Critical Minerals 2022, https://www.iea.org/policies/15271-final-list-of-critical-minerals-2022.
[17] IEA (2023), World Energy Employment 2023, IEA, Paris, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ba1eab3e-8e4c-490c-9983-80601fa9d736/World_Energy_Employment_2023.pdf.
[24] IEA (2021), The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf.
[32] IGF (2021), Impact of New Mining Technologies on Local Procurement in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, International Institute for Sustainable Development, https://www.iisd.org/system/files/2021-12/impact-new-mining-technologies-democratic-republic-congo-en.pdf.
[52] IGF/IISD (2019), New Tech, New Deal, International Institute for Sustainable Development, https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/new-tech-new-deal-technology.pdf?q=sites/default/files/publications/new-tech-new-deal-technology.pdf.
[1] ILOSTAT (2023), ILO Modelled Estimates, https://ilostat.ilo.org/ (accessed on 27 November 2023).
[50] IPIS/USAID (2022), Analysis of the interactive map of artisanal mining areas in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, https://ipisresearch.be/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/20221129_ILRG_IPIS_AnalysisMapASM.pdf.
[47] ISE (2024), Tantalum Price, Occurrence, Extraction and Use, https://en.institut-seltene-erden.de/seltene-erden-und-metalle/strategische-metalle-2/tantal/#:~:text=Le%20proc%C3%A9d%C3%A9%20utilis%C3%A9%20techniquement%20aujourd,d’acide%20fluorhydrique%20et%20sulfurique.
[42] Jaillon, A. and G. De Brier (2019), Mapping artisanal mining sites in the Western Central African Republic, https://www.land-links.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/AMPR-IPIS-ASM-Mapping-in-Western-CAR-English-Final.pdf.
[88] Johansson de Silva, S., T. Strauss and N. Morisho (2019), The Mutoshi Pilot Project, https://www.trafigura.com/news-and-insights/publications/white-papers/2019/the-mutoshi-pilot-project/.
[76] Kingdom of Belgium (2022), Sustainable mining in Central Africa is possible, https://diplomatie.belgium.be/en/policy/policy-areas/highlighted/sustainable-mining-central-africa-possible.
[82] Korinek, J. (2014), Export Restrictions on Raw Materials: Experience with Alternative Policies in Botswana, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5jzb6v86kz32-en.
[33] Korinek, J. and I. Ramdoo (2017), “Local content policies in mineral-exporting countries”, OECD Trade Policy Papers, No. 209, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/4b9b2617-en.
[49] Le Bec, C. (2012), “Dossier mines : l’africanisation est en marche”, Jeuneafrique, https://www.jeuneafrique.com/29274/economie-entreprises/dossier-mines-l-africanisation-est-en-marche/.
[63] McMahon, G., S. Banerjee and Z. Romo (2016), Mining as a transformative opportunity for sub-Saharan Africa, https://www.proparco.fr/en/article/mining-transformative-opportunity-sub-saharan-africa.
[43] McQuilken, J. et al. (2024), The 2023 State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) Sector, https://www.delvedatabase.org/resources/2023-state-of-the-artisanal-and-small-scale-mining-sector?_gl=1*1jgp7hx*_ga*OTQzNTY5NjMwLjE3MDkwNTQ0MTA.*_ga_03THTD2TV9*MTcxMTExMDY1My4xNC4wLjE3MTExMTA2NTMuMC4wLjA.
[57] Meißner, S. (2021), The Impact of Metal Mining on Global Water Stress and Regional Carrying Capacities — A GIS-Based Water Impact Assessment, https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10120120.
[30] Mejía, J. and E. Aliakbari (2023), Annual Survey of Mining Companies 2022, https://www.fraserinstitute.org/studies/annual-survey-of-mining-companies-2022.
[60] Mining Qualifications Authority (2018), Research Study Probing the Green Skills That Can Be Prioritised in the Mining and Minerals Sector, https://mqa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/MQA-Green-Skills-Study-Findings-Report-November-2018_0.pdf.
[65] Mining Review Africa (2021), Kamoa Copper to Receive Clean and Reliable Renewable Hydropower, https://www.miningreview.com/base-metals/kamoa-copper-to-receive-clean-and-reliable-renewable-hydropower/.
[10] Morsy, H. and A. Mukasa (2019), “Youth jobs, skill and educational mismatches in Africa”, Working Paper Series, No. 326, African Development Bank Group, Abidjan, https://www.afdb.org/sites/default/files/documents/publications/wps_no_326_youth_jobs_skill_and_educational_mismatches_in_africa_f1.pdf.
[78] Mutemeri, N. et al. (2023), 2023 State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector, https://www.delvedatabase.org/uploads/resources/Delve-2023-State-of-the-Sector-Report-Launch-COMP.pdf.
[54] Nunfam, V. et al. (2019), Climate Change and Occupational Heat Stress Risks and Adaptation Strategies of Mining Workers: Perspectives of Supervisors and other Stakeholders in Ghana, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30458350/.
[69] Nzaou, J. (2020), Potentiel de partenariats pour les compétences et la migration en République du Congo, https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---ifp_skills/documents/genericdocument/wcms_747714.pdf.
[62] Odoh, C. et al. (2019), “Status, progress and challenges of phytoremediation - An African scenario”, Journal of Environmental Management, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.02.090.
[36] OECD (2019), Interconnected Supply Chains: A Comprehensive Look at Due Diligence Challenges and Opportunities Sourcing Cobalt and Copper from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, https://mneguidelines.oecd.org/Interconnected-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-diligence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-cobalt-and-copper-from-the-DRC.pdf.
[34] OECD (2016), Collaborative Strategies for In-Country Shared Value Creation: Framework for Extractive Projects, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264257702-en.
[89] OECD (2016), OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas: Third Edition, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264252479-en.
[22] Östensson, O. and A. Roe (2017), Sustainable Mining : How Good Practices in the Mining Sector Contribute to More and Better Jobs, https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---emp_ent/---multi/documents/publication/wcms_592317.pdf.
[75] PACT (2024), In DRC, Pact and private-sector partners help thousands of artisanal miners to improve health, safety and legal compliance, https://www.pactworld.org/blog/drc-pact-and-private-sector-partners-help-thousands-artisanal-miners-improve-health-safety-and.
[91] PACT (2022), With Pact’s Support, Mineral Tracing in Burundi Goes Digital, https://www.pactworld.org/blog/pact%E2%80%99s-support-mineral-tracing-burundi-goes-digital.
[70] PACT (2020), Pact’s Children Out of Mining program in Lualaba & Haut-Lomani Provinces of DRC, https://www.pactworld.org/library/pacts-children-out-mining-program-lualaba-haut-lomani-provinces-drc.
[85] PNUD (2023), UNDP, the European Union and the Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States Renew Partnership on Development Minerals Management, https://www.undp.org/european-union/news/undp-european-union-and-organisation-african-caribbean-and-pacific-states-renew-partnership-development-minerals-management.
[27] Radley, B. (2023), “African countries lost control to foreign mining companies – the 3 steps that allowed this to happen”, The Conversation, https://theconversation.com/african-countries-lost-control-to-foreign-mining-companies-the-3-steps-that-allowed-this-to-happen-218437.
[87] Ramdoo, I. (2016), Local content policies in mineral-rich countries, https://ecdpm.org/application/files/5616/5546/8847/ECDPM-Discussion-Paper-193-Local-Content-Policies-Mineral-Rich-Countries-2016.pdf.
[15] Reichl and Schatz (2023), World Mining Data 2023, https://www.world-mining-data.info/wmd/downloads/PDF/WMD2023.pdf.
[14] Romel Touka, J. (2015), Le secteur minier en Afrique centrale, https://unctad.org/system/files/non-official-document/Atelier%20Lancement%20Tchad%20-%20Jules%20Rommel%20Touka%20-%2025%20nov%202015.pdf.
[48] Rubbers, B. (2020), Mining Boom, Labour Market Segmentation and Social Inequality in the Congolese Copperbelt, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7687087/.
[51] Rupprecht, S. (2017), Bench mining utilizing manual labour and mechanized equipment – a proposed mining method for artisanal small-scale mining in Central Africa, http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S2225-62532017000100009&script=sci_abstract.
[41] Rupprecht, S. (2015), “Needs Analysis for Capacity Building of Artisanal Miners in Central Africa”, https://www.saimm.co.za/Conferences/BM2015/045-Rupprecht.pdf.
[90] Shumsky, S. (2020), Mutoshi Cobalt Pilot Project, DRC: Transforming ASM for Increased Productivity, Safer Working Condiitons, and Fairer Female Earnings, https://www.delvedatabase.org/uploads/resources/2020-SoS_OHS-2_Mutoshi-Cobalt.pdf.
[74] Stocklin-Weinberg, R., M. Veiga and B. Marshall (2019), Training artisanal miners: A proposed framework with performance evaluation indicators, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.113.
[46] The Raw Material Outlook (2021), Raw Material Outlook Platform, https://www.rawmaterialoutlook.org/zinc#:~:text=Zinc%20is%20a%20critical%20metal,beneficial%20physical%20and%20mechanical%20properties.
[37] UNCTAD (2020), Commodities at a Glance: Special Issue on Strategic Battery Raw Materials, https://doi.org/10.18356/9ba5e76c-en.
[8] UNESCO (2023), World Inequality Database on Education, https://www.education-inequalities.org/ (accessed on 27 November 2023).
[61] UNESCO (2019), UNESCO Regional Office for Eastern Africa, Annual report 2019: Exploring digital opportunities, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000388768?posInSet=1&queryId=N-EXPLORE-cc70591c-44e9-487d-8364-485d91abab9d.
[5] UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2023), UIS Stat, http://data.uis.unesco.org/ (accessed on 27 November 2023).
[9] USAID/DHS (2023), Demographic and Health Survey Program, https://dhsprogram.com/ (accessed on 27 November 2023).
[56] USAID/SWP (2022), Democratic Republic of the Congo Water Resources Profile Overview, https://winrock.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/DRC_Country_Profile_Final.pdf.
[28] Wagner, J. (2023), “Gécamines, Kibali Gold Mine, Kamoa… : les miniers congolais en tête des champions d’Afrique centrale”, Jeuneafrique, https://www.jeuneafrique.com/1425213/economie-entreprises/gecamines-kibali-gold-mine-kamoa-les-miniers-congolais-en-tete-des-champions-dafrique-centrale/.
[29] Weng, L. et al. (2015), “Asian investment at artisanal and small-scale mines in rural Cameroon”, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2014.07.011.
[68] Werquin, P. and S. Foka (2020), Étude exploratoire sur le potentiel de partenariats pour les compétences et la migration en Afrique centrale, https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---ifp_skills/documents/genericdocument/wcms_747713.pdf.
[94] World Bank (2024), Enterprise surveys, https://www.enterprisesurveys.org/en/enterprisesurveys.
[7] World Bank (2023), Education Statistics, https://databank.worldbank.org/source/education-statistics-%5E-all-indicators (accessed on 27 November 2023).
[13] World Bank (2023), Global Bilateral Migration, https://databank.worldbank.org/source/global-bilateral-migration (accessed on 27 November 2023).
[2] World Bank (2023), World Development Indicators, https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators (accessed on 27 November 2023).
[77] World Bank (2016), Zambia - Mining and Environmental Remediation and Improvement Project, https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/214971482116474950/pdf/1482116472340-000A10458-Zambia-Mining-Final-11292016.pdf.
Notes
← 1. Nearly two thirds of Africa’s total mining production is controlled by two multinationals: Glencore (Switzerland) and Anglo American (South Africa). The share of African mining production controlled by China is around 28% for copper, 82% for bauxite, 41% for cobalt and 40% for uranium (Ericsson, Löf and Löf, 2020[92]).
← 2. Authors’ calculations based on (World Bank, 2024[94]).