Introduction Measures for Newly-Arrived Migrants

Introduction

Why are introduction measures for new arrivals so important?

Migration inflows in OECD and EU countries have been on the rise in the past decades, despite the large drop during the COVID‑19 crisis. At the same time, evidence has been accumulating that recent migrants have lagged behind the native‑born. These two broad patterns clearly point to the need to pay attention migrant integration from the early stage of their arrival in the host country. Migrants have the potential to bring substantial benefits to their host countries (OECD, 2021[1]), and yet, it is clear certain systemic barriers exist that can prevent them from reaching that potential. Joint work by the OECD and the EU has shown that migrants in most OECD and EU countries have on average worse outcomes than the native‑born population (OECD/European Union, 2018[2]). Gaps in unemployment and employment rates between foreign and native‑born populations remain significant in most countries, with some notable exceptions. Newly arrived adult migrants, who have been raised, educated, and often employed in a very different context from the one where they find themselves in their host country, will likely need some assistance in bridging these gaps. Introduction measures can help countries enhance the benefits that productive migrants bring to their communities.

Successful labour market integration is often seen as essential to maintaining the welfare state (primarily in European countries), and employment is widely regarded as a path to social integration and cohesion. In recent years, there has also been growing attention to social integration, with a view towards ensuring that newly-arrived immigrants are aware of, and indeed ideally share, the core values of the host-country society (see below). The most sensible time to take stock of a migrant’s existing skills and develop a plan to build new ones is upon their arrival in the host country.

Migrants arrive in their host country with a variety of different skills and competencies. Upon their arrival, it is very important to take stock of their existing skills and develop a plan to build new ones. Migrants can be expected to be at different points in their lives, have different goals and obligations, and have different needs. If needs and expectations are addressed at the early stages of the integration trajectory, the migrant has more time to settle in to life in the host country. Integration is the process by which migrants build upon the portable skills they have, adding country-specific skills – notably language – and understanding. Working-age migrants will also have more productive years ahead of them than they would if integrated later. Improving the labour-market outcomes of migrants is important, for both the host country and the migrant.

Early integration is not only a predictor of later outcomes. There is evidence that early intervention provides strong payoffs (OECD, 2014[3]). In particular, targeted introduction measures can hasten improvements in outcomes by creating more opportunities for newly arrived immigrants to find work quickly or begin an educational/vocational programme. Among these measures, language training has received significant focus given the fact that language proficiency impacts so many other integration outcomes, allowing migrants to access services, to communicate their needs within the host-country society, and enter the labour market earlier. Immigrants who speak the host-country language have significantly higher employment rates than those who report language difficulties – independent of the reason for migration and the level and origin of qualifications (Zorlu and Hartog, 2018[4]).

The first years of settlement are a dynamic phase for migrants. In all countries, longer residence is associated with better knowledge of the host-country language and higher employment rates for immigrants, but the learning curve tends to be steeper during the early years after arrival than in later years (Hartshorne, Tenenbaum and Pinker, 2018[5]). Across the EU, among recently arrived non-native speakers, attending a language course in the host country has been associated with an 8 percentage point greater likelihood of proficiency in the host language (OECD/European Union, 2018[2]). Emphasising early language learning for adult new arrivals should provide a high pay-off, particularly in countries with a high share of humanitarian migrants, who often have little‑to-no proficiency in the host-country language and often have concurrent integration needs.

Current integration trends recognise the heterogeneity of the migrant population

In addition to the economic benefits, integration contributes to higher acceptance of immigrants in host-country society and, more generally, to social cohesion.1 The native‑born have generally been found to be more welcoming of migrants who work with them, learn the host-country language, and are considered “well-integrated.” To further this sense of social cohesion, host countries have an interest in improving integration relative to what has been done in the past. Most countries have thus stepped up their integration offers for new arrivals.

Countries increasingly understand that integration is an individualised experience requiring tailor-made solutions

In parallel, in recent years, the majority of OECD and EU countries have shifted towards considering migrants as individuals with specific needs rather than as a homogenous group. Family migrants are often more likely to have childcare obligations or lower levels of host-country language on arrival, posing specific integration challenges. Individuals also bring their own culture and traditions, and are seeking to reconcile those with the social norms of the host country without leaving them behind. Greater understanding of these issues has led countries to develop more tailor-made integration solutions, to focus more on unique challenges, such as gender-specific issues, and to increase attention to social integration that allows migrants to exchange with the native‑born regarding their own cultural specificities.

Individualisation also emphasises the capacity to adapt measures in response to changes, be that a migrant’s capacity to learn more quickly than anticipated, or an external event that impacts some individuals more profoundly than others.

All OECD and EU countries propose some form of introduction measures to new migrants, but wide variation exists between the offerings. For some countries, the term “integration programme” refers to a specific set of measures and benefits provided as a package (Box 1). This may be available to all migrants regardless of category, or it may be targeted towards specific groups of new arrivals, especially humanitarian migrants. Other countries may not have a comprehensive integration programme at all but still may offer specific introduction measures that can be combined to create an integration plan.

Particularly in countries that have only recently experienced significant immigration, policy measures to assist new migrants in settling in and acclimating to their new host country have typically been focused on ensuring basic needs are met. It is common that such measures originate at a local level, particularly where migrant numbers are small, and indeed, in many countries, such measures have targeted only humanitarian migrants, implemented as they were in response to large waves of humanitarian migration (Table 1).

Table 1. Level of introduction service provision, by migrant category

	Extent of integration service provision
	Humanitarian	Family	Labour
Australia
Austria
Belgium (Flanders)
Canada
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Croatia
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Iceland
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Korea
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Mexico
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovak Republic
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Türkiye
United Kingdom
United States

Extensive national programme

Broad, targeted national measures

Small-scale national measures

Local measures

Mainstream measures

Note: “Small-scale national measures” implies that such measures exist but only for select courses, such as language or civics. The presence of a national measures does not preclude the existence of local measures. The designation is intended to reflect the system at its highest level of government.

Source: OECD questionnaire on introduction measures for new arrivals 2021.

 

Box 1. A note on terminology

OECD and EU countries have taken a wide variety of approaches to design of introduction measures. In many cases, this includes the delineation of separate integration pathways for migrants based on their reason for immigration/migrant category. Along with these divergent pathways comes different terminology. Most countries have a suite of introduction measures for humanitarian migrants. The term “humanitarian migrant” is a generic term which refers to persons who have completed the asylum procedure with a positive outcome and have been granted protection. It subsumes the categories “migrants with asylum/refugee status”, “beneficiaries of subsidiary protection”, “sponsored refugees”, and “resettled refugees.” In most countries, family members of the above categories, including those joining later, benefit from the same measures. However, this is often restricted to those who join the principal humanitarian migrant in the first years of settlement or before the principal migrant obtains citizenship (see Chapter 2. for discussion).

In some countries, the set of measures proposed to new arrivals is referred to as an integration (or introduction) programme. Typically, when this is the case, the country is distinguishing this programme from other more specific measures it offers to a broader category of migrants. In some countries, an integration programme is intended to occupy the majority of a migrant’s time during the first years of migration. It may thus be accompanied by substantial financial support. However, other countries may use the term integration programme to describe something shorter-term or less encompassing. It does not follow that those countries that do not have a formal “integration programme” are not providing similar measures. Most countries at least some have targeted introduction measures that cover a variety of integration needs – with language training being the most common element. Other countries that offer individualised guidance, or those countries that allow full access to mainstream national services may be meeting as many of a migrant’s needs. In some circumstances, mainstream measures that account for migrant status and specific needs may also be seen as “targeted” introduction measures. This is often the case, for example, when distance to the labour market is used in jobseeker support, and language mastery is one of the key elements in the measurement and objective setting.

However, the foreign-born population is made up of quite different categories of migrants (Figure 1). In Switzerland, for example, many immigrants arrive for employment, whereas in the United States, family migration makes up the majority of legal immigration flows (OECD/European Union, 2018[2]). Freedom of movement arrangements such as the EU/European Economic Area (EEA) or the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement, on the other hand, enable significant flows of migration for employment. These groups are categorised by a diversity of skill levels that require different levels of support. While family migrants may not need the same health or housing support as humanitarian migrants, their language competency and education background may not position them well to enter the labour market without support.

It is important to move from providing ad hoc support in response to crisis to comprehensive and well-considered solutions to support long-term integration. Policy makers need to plan and implement measures to maximise return on investment for governments while also maximising utility for various migrant groups with various needs. To do so, they must define their own expectations, which may vary widely. They must also understand the needs of their migrant population, which may be influenced by the difference in that population’s composition relative to other countries, as well as other factors.

Figure 1. Categories of entry

Notes: 2006‑20 for Finland; 2012‑20 for Luxembourg; 2010‑20 for Mexico; 2007‑20 for Spain.

Source: OECD International Migration Database, https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00342-en.

Increasing attention to the gender dimension of integration of new arrivals

As increased attention is paid to the individualised nature of integration, the unique issues affecting migrant women have also received additional attention. In many countries, migration has an important gender dimension. Women are underrepresented in overall migration flows, but overrepresented in migrant stocks, exceeding 50% in many countries and reaching 56% in Estonia and 54% in Israel (Figure 2). While fewer women migrate to OECD countries, women stay longer in the host country, and there is growing evidence that paying more attention to this group provides high returns, often higher than for men. In 2022, the intersection between gender and migration has become even more salient. Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine triggered a mass displacement from that country that is overwhelmingly composed of women and children, with working-age men remaining mobilised in Ukraine. The needs of this group require special consideration (Box 2 and Chapter 2. ).

How to increase participation of migrant women, both in the labour market and in integration programmes, is a question that has challenged receiving countries. Integrating individuals according to their needs is a complex endeavour, and like all groups, female migrants have diverse backgrounds and needs and will achieve diverse outcomes. Still some common needs are sufficiently clear to warrant attention. Women, both native‑ and foreign-born, are less likely to participate in the labour market if they have children, with larger gaps in the case of migrants (OECD, 2020[6]). Combining childcare with participation in introduction activities is also challenging. Gender roles and female labour participation rates in origin countries may also play a role in erecting barriers to accessing introduction measures (Frank and Hou, 2015[7]).

Figure 2. Share of women in overall migration flows and stocks in selected OECD countries, 2020

Note: 2019 for flow data, 2020 or most recent available year for stock data.

Source: OECD International Migration database, https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00342-en.

Box 2. Displacement from Ukraine due to Russia’s war of aggression

The invasion of Ukraine by Russia on 24 February 2022 set off a new test of OECD and EU countries ability to effectively accommodate and integrate migrants. The speed of the exodus from Ukraine into neighbouring countries has been unprecedented, as has been the political unanimity of host countries regarding the need to accept Ukrainian refugees. As of 13 September, about 4.5 million refugees from Ukraine were registered in EU and OECD countries in Europe. Surveys in several OECD countries indicated that almost half of the displaced are children and over 80% of adults are female. This raises specific challenges for education and childcare on the one hand and gender-specific issues on the other.

Many countries quickly adapted their integration measures, and these changes and follow-on corrections have been ongoing. The initial response of host countries was focused on meeting the immediate resettlement needs of this group, including providing housing, access to health care, and social assistance. Nearly all OECD and EU countries have provided Ukrainians with access to their labour market as well. Many of those displaced from Ukraine have indicated a desire to return if the situation allows, but given the uncertain duration of the conflict and the extent of the destruction of civilian infrastructure in Ukraine, longer-term solutions may also be needed.

Host country efforts to respond to this situation will be a test of the resiliency of their integration systems, but one which offers significant opportunity to draw lessons and improve these systems for the future of migration. Specific measures to provide integration services to Ukrainians are not addressed in detail in this volume, as it was largely prepared prior to the invasion. Still, the questions that are considered herein are designed to assist countries in developing flexible systems that are capable of meeting exactly this sort of challenge.

Source: OECD (2022[8]), Rights and Support for Ukrainian Refugees in Receiving Countries, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/09beb886-en.

Increased focus on the need for social integration of new arrivals

While no single definition of integration exists across the OECD, countries have increasingly converged on an understanding of integration that focuses on inclusion, either social or economic – or both – rather than assimilation. Integration is also a process that occurs over time, during which key outcomes (e.g. employment, earnings, etc.) tend to converge towards those of the native‑born – at least to those with similar characteristics (OECD, 2007[9]). That said, integration cuts across different aspects of migrants’ lives, ideally meaning that immigrants are able to participate fully in social, cultural, and political life in their host country, and not all can be directly measured. These and other objectives are analysed in Chapter 1. and the various measures to achieve them are discussed in Chapter 5.

Social integration is, by its very nature, a two‑way process. Strengthening of ties to the destination country, therefore, often include efforts to create a more inclusive society, with the majority accepting that the immigrants do not have to change all aspects of their culture of origin, traditions, and behaviour to become integral parts of the host-country community. Supporting social integration, especially by encouraging informal contacts with the native born, helping reduce migrant isolation and increasing native acceptance of new arrivals, shapes a more supportive environment for all members of the community, migrant and native alike.

Social, educational, and spatial integration are essential, not only for new arrivals but also for their children. Because integration is a multidimensional process, failure to integrate migrants properly in any of these spheres may cause significant disadvantages in other areas, including for labour market prospects and integration of their offspring. Measures that address social integration place migrants on a solid foundation to build a future and to see a future for their families, making them more likely to invest in long-term integration.

COVID‑19 created new challenges but also inspired innovations

Introduction measures were largely halted in the early days of the COVID‑19 pandemic due to closures and distancing measures. Some countries were able to transition their integration offerings, principally language courses, to an online format with relative ease, while others faced challenges adapting their services (OECD, 2021[10]). Migrants – most particularly newcomers – were disproportionately affected by the pandemic. This was true despite the fact that migrants occupied essential sectors of the economy in many countries. They bore a disproportionate share of the health and labour market impact, often faced obstacles to accessing social services and difficulty obtaining sufficient information from trusted sources, and suffered delayed access to introduction programmes and measures (OECD, 2020[11]). Over time, these challenges may reveal further impacts on their education and employment outcomes. The onset of the pandemic revealed gaps in and challenges for the integration process of all migrants, especially new arrivals, regardless of category. It also showed the importance of the government, particularly when it came to ensuring consistency of services across geographies (Chapter 8. ). Steps taken by countries to increase participation in introduction measures, particularly through additions of online offerings, are discussed in Chapter 6. The pandemic affected newcomers across a broad range of integration indicators. Efforts to reduce isolation in the migrant community were particularly important. Follow-on impacts of delays in reception of integration assistance may mean that the most vulnerable migrants need tailored assistance for a longer period.

While certain pandemic-related changes, such as increased use of digital tools to improve health literacy and information provision, may present opportunities for improved outcomes in the future, COVID‑19 adaptations also highlighted the consequences of a lack of digital literacy. Across all countries, some groups of migrants remained unable to access such measures because of a lack of mastery of the underlying digital tools. Digital service provision presents an opportunity to compensate for migrant vulnerabilities – to reduce isolation and to continue learning where in-person courses are challenging. These measures allow for adaptability, a wider scope, and potentially increase cost effectiveness. Nevertheless, to reach as many migrants as possible, countries must address the digital gap. The COVID‑19 pandemic made clear that countries benefit from including efforts to build a foundation of digital literacy in their introduction measures or risk leaving some migrants behind.

The long-term impacts of the COVID‑19 pandemic are still unknown. The period of stabilisation following the pandemic presents an opportunity to review and re‑evaluate the plans and interactions supported by the government in the realm of integration.

The purpose of this publication

Designing an effective introduction programme is a challenging task. Effectiveness with respect to the defined objectives depends on many factors: from how well introduction measures are tailored to skills needed in the labour market to whether migrants are motivated to learn and whether the measures are accessible and widely available. This report guides policy makers and practitioners through the design and implementation of effective introduction measures for adult migrants, drawing on experience from OECD and EU countries and a number of empirical studies for examples of good practice. The term adult migrant is used throughout this volume to describe migrants, regardless of their motivation for migration, who arrived in their host country at an age that renders them ineligible for mainstream education, including language training (typically from the age of 16‑18). While eligibility criteria for programmes differ, for the purpose of this publication the terms “recent” or “new” generally refer to persons with at most five years of residency in the host country. In many cases, programmes apply solely to specific groups of migrants – such as humanitarian migrants or labour migrants. Where this is the case, these groups are mentioned in what follows. Moreover, even though some countries have made pursuit of citizenship a central tenant of their integration policy for recent arrivals, because the focus of this volume is on new arrivals, targeted citizenship measures are not included.

This booklet presents 10 guiding questions for countries seeking to design effective introduction measures for new arrivals, which policy makers can use to identify integration priorities and achieve the best outcomes for immigrants, employers, and society at large. Each country has its own specific goals and priorities for integration of migrants, and differences in budgets, government structure, and migrant flows which influence integration policy making. However, there are certain issues common to all countries, regardless of how they structure their programming. The questions in this booklet are designed to assist policy makers in understanding the most important issues by examining how member countries have considered:

1. The rationale for introduction programmes for new arrivals

2. Which migrants receive integration support

3. When new arrivals receive integration support

4. How to tailor these programmes to account for migrants’ different starting points

5. What is included in introduction measures or programmes

6. How to increase or ensure migrant participation

7. How to co‑ordinate the different stakeholders involved in migrant integration

8. Setting standards in a way that provides all migrants in need with equal opportunity

9. The most cost-effective ways to meet integration goals

10. Whether introduction measures are effectively tailored to meet the defined rationale

Note

← 1.  For a discussion of what it means to be integrated, see (European Commission, 2022[89]).