This chapter looks at students' confidence in their self-directed learning skills. Based on students' experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic, four aspects are considered: confidence in planning their schoolwork, in their ability to motivate themselves to do schoolwork, in their ability to find resources online autonomously, and in their ability to assess their own progress. The chapter identifies which of these areas are most in need of improvement and explores their relationship with the use of key learning strategies, motivation to learn and performance in mathematics. The chapter also explores the relationship between confidence in self-directed learning and social and emotional skills.
PISA 2022 Results (Volume V)
Learning Strategies and Attitudes for Life
PISA
Abstract
For Australia*, Canada*, Denmark*, Hong Kong (China)*, Ireland*, Jamaica*, Latvia*, the Netherlands*, New Zealand*, Panama*, the United Kingdom* and the United States*, caution is advised when interpreting estimates because one or more PISA sampling standards were not met (see Reader’s Guide, Annexes A2 and A4).
Student capacity to direct and regulate their own learning is the key skill in sustained lifelong learning (Dignath, Buettner and Langfeldt, 2008[1]; Council of the European Union, 2002[2]).
Lifelong learning requires a change in mindset from being a passive recipient of knowledge to an active participant in the learning process (Candy, 1991[3]). Self-directed learning capabilities and competencies can spur this on. It is taking responsibility for controlling one’s own learning by autonomously setting what, when and how to learn and maintain motivation (Zimmerman, 1998[4]). Education systems can help students become effective lifelong learners by helping them develop their own agency in learning with adapted approaches (Cazan and Schiopca, 2014[5]; Douglass and Morris, 2014[6]).
Against the backdrop of the COVID-19 pandemic, PISA 2022 asked students to report on how confident they are about self-directing their learning in case schools had to close again in the future. This section focuses on how prepared students are to learn outside the traditional school environment and, by extension, how prepared students and education systems are for lifelong learning. Students’ confidence in their abilities and motivation to learn are central to their ability to learn outside and beyond school settings. When interpreting these results, however, it should be borne in mind that students' experiences of the pandemic, such as school closures, vary from country to country. Conclusions drawn in this chapter may apply differently in different contexts.
Fifteen-year-olds feel most comfortable finding resources online on their own. While they are confident about planning their working schedules, they feel less assured about motivating themselves to follow through on them. Moreover, many low performers are not confident they can find resources online or plan their schoolwork on their own: these are strong barriers to learning autonomy.
In close relation to this, intrinsic motivations are strongly linked to students’ confidence in self-directed learning. While instrumental motivations are important, they play a secondary role. Gaps in motivation between confident self-directed learners and their less confidence peers are consistent across most countries and economies, underscoring the constant relationship between motivational aspects and confidence in self-directed learning.
Confident, self-directed learners reported using several key strategies for sustained learning. They tend to be more meticulous in their approach to learning. They pay careful attention to details in their schoolwork and ensure they thoroughly understand the material by frequently asking questions. These learners are also more likely to consider different perspectives before forming their own opinions and are proactive in their learning behaviours. In particular, proactive students in Hong Kong (China)* are about twice as likely as their less proactive peers to be self-directed learners. They are confident they can plan their schoolwork on their own; motivate themselves to do schoolwork; and assess their own learning progress if ever their school were to close again in the future. This holds even after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile.
Students that reported strong social and emotional skills are consistently more confident in their ability to self-regulate their learning behaviours. For example, the most persistent students are significantly more likely to report confidence in such behaviours than the least persistent. The gap is particularly large for students who feel confident being able to motivate themselves to do their schoolwork, especially in Australia*, Hong Kong (China)*, the Netherlands* and New Zealand*. Student persistence is a key component of autonomous lifelong learning. Cooperative students are also more confident in their self-directed learning strategies, especially in motivating themselves to do schoolwork on their own. This is particularly so in Colombia, Croatia, El Salvador, Mexico and Peru.
Analyses in previous PISA 2022 volumes found that students in education systems that were most resilient throughout the pandemic did not necessarily have above-average confidence in their self-directed learning abilities (OECD, 2023[7]).
If we look more closely at the relationship between self-directed learning and performance in each education system, skilled performers are more confident self-directing their learning than low performers in most countries/economies (Table V.B1.9.1). Moreover, findings from PISA 2022 reveal that, on average across OECD countries, socio-economically advantaged students were more confident in their capacity to learn autonomously and remotely compared to disadvantaged students. Similarly, girls have greater confidence in their self-directed learning abilities than boys in about a third of all participating education systems (OECD, 2023[7]).
To analyse this further, four aspects that “scaffold” self-directed learning are observed in detail: students’ confidence in planning their schoolwork; their capacity to motivate themselves to do schoolwork; their ability to autonomously find resources online; and assessing their own progress1 in case schools have to close again in the future. These four aspects are the building blocks of autonomous learning.
Students feel confident about planning their working schedules but less confident about motivating themselves to see them through
Most students feel confident about planning their own study schedules (69%). This helps students develop organisational skills and time management, essential for managing their educational responsibilities effectively. PISA data show that skilled performers are more inclined to feel confident in that area, with 73% reporting this, on average – and the share is at least 80% in 15 countries with available data. Among low performers, about 62% reported being confident planning their schoolwork. There is a wide variation across countries/economies. In Colombia and Panama* the share is at least 80% while in Japan and Korea less than 40% reported such confidence. Among skilled performers, up to 87% reported confidence in Colombia. Only in Japan did less than half of skilled performers report feeling confident (Figure V.9.1).
Percentage of students who responded that they feel confident or very confident planning when to do schoolwork on their own if their school closes again in the future
Note: Only countries and economies with available data are shown.
Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the percentage of all students.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.9.3. See Table V.9.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
About motivation, however, only slightly over half of students reported confidence motivating themselves to do schoolwork (58%), irrespective of their level of performance in mathematics, on average across OECD countries. Students’ confidence in motivating themselves varies a great deal from country to country, ranging from 35% in Japan to over 80% in Cambodia and El Salvador among skilled performers, and 32% in Japan and over 80% in Colombia among low performers (Figure V.9.1b [available online]). Self-motivation is crucial for maintaining engagement and persistence, especially when facing challenges or less interesting tasks.
Fifteen-year-olds feel most comfortable finding resources online on their own
Students reported feeling confident or very confident about finding resources online on their own – a critical skill in the digital age. On average, 73% of students reported feeling confident finding learning resources online by themselves, with 79% of skilled performers and about 62% of low performers, on average. Over 90% of skilled performers reported confidence in Croatia and Italy, as did over 75% of low performers in these two countries as well as in Colombia and Panama*. In Japan, 36% of skilled performers and only about one in five low performers did (Figure V.9.1c [available online]). It is important to note that assessing the relevance and reliability of resources found online is a different matter – one that requires a specific set of skills addressed in Chapter 8.
Finally, the ability to assess one's progress is a form of reflective learning, enabling students to identify areas for improvement and adjust their strategies accordingly. This is one key element of self-directed learning. While an average of 65% of students reported being confident in this practice, with 67% of skilled performers and 62% of low performers, the share is as high as 80% or more of skilled performers in Croatia, Colombia, El Salvador, Iceland, Kazakhstan and Panama*. Only in Japan did less than 40% of skilled and low performers report confidence in assessing their progress (Figure V.9.1d [available online]).
Substantial variation in confidence in self-directed learning practices across education systems suggests cultural, educational, and systemic factors at play in student responses2. However, overall, these results point to three important findings. First, a substantial share of students need to improve their capacity to assess their own progress, on average and across countries and economies. Second, many low performers lack confidence in their ability to plan their schoolwork on their own and find resources online in many systems (Figure V.9.1and Figure V.9.1c [available online]). Third, all students can benefit from improved motivation to work autonomously outside of traditional school settings, on average and across countries and economies.
These and previously analysed findings suggest that if schools were to physically close again in the future, some students would face more challenges than others, exacerbating disparities in learning. The following analysis explores the positive relationships between strategies for sustained learning, motivations, and social and emotional skills, providing insights that can help educators enhance students' confidence in self-directed learning.
PISA data show positive relationships between students’ confidence in self-directed learning and the strategies for sustained learning analysed in this report, even after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile (Figure V.9.1e [available online]).
Confident, self-directed learners are more meticulous than their less confident peers
PISA data show that students who are confident about their self-directed learning capacities (as measured by the PISA index of confidence in self-directed learning3, where a positive value indicates students feel more confident in their self-directed learning than the OECD average while a negative value suggests the opposite) frequently ask questions in class when they do not understand what is being taught – significantly more than their less confident peers (22 percentage-point gap, on average) (Figure V.9.2). This gap is significant and large in all countries and economies, ranging from 12 percentage points in Poland to 35 in Viet Nam. Similarly, more confident, self-directed students check their work, in general, for mistakes (20 percentage-point difference) and check their homework before handing it in (24 percentage points), on average as well as across countries. The gap between confident and less confident students in these two types of meticulousness are the largest in New Zealand*, at 39 and 37 percentage points, respectively. These findings show the interconnectedness of self-directed learning, meticulousness and self-monitoring, highlighting the need for learning environments that foster student autonomy and positive mindsets (Tables V.B1.9.12, V.B1.9.13 and V.B1.9.17).
Percentage of students who reported asking questions at least half of the time they did not understand the mathematics material that was being taught
Notes: Only countries and economies with available data are shown.
All percentage-point difference between students with more confidence in self-directed learning and those with less are statistically significant (Annex A3).
Students who reported less (more) confidence in self-directed learning are those in the bottom (top) quarter of the index of confidence in self-directed learning in their own country/economy.
Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the percentage-point difference between students with more confidence in self-directed learning compared to those with less.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.9.17. See Table V.9.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
The relationships between these self-monitoring strategies, and confidence in self-directed learning are positive and hold after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile and students’ performance in mathematics across countries. This is especially so for carefully checking homework before submitting it, which is strongest in Germany – only in Panama* is the relationship not significant (Figure V.9.1e [available online] and Table V.B1.9.10).
Confident, self-directed students are more likely to consider different perspectives before forming their own opinions
Students with greater self-directed learning confidence are more likely to consider different perspectives before forming their own opinions, with a 17 percentage-point average difference (Figure V.9.3). The gap is the largest at over 28 percentage points in Austria, Bulgaria and Malaysia, and the smallest in Brazil and Greece at under 10 percentage points – and is not significant only in Georgia. Confident students also reported seeing issues from different angles to a larger extent than their less confident peers (19 percentage-point gap, on average). These differences are significant across most countries and economies (Tables V.B1.9.14 and V.B1.9.15).
Critical thinking (perspective-taking) enables students to evaluate and integrate diverse viewpoints before making their own decisions. Perspective-taking encourages learners to move beyond superficial comprehension and consider multiple angles and perspectives. This is crucial for robust information-processing and informed decisions.
Percentage of students agreeing or strongly agreeing they try to consider everybody's perspective before they take a position
Notes: Only countries and economies with available data are shown.
Percentage-point difference between students with more confidence in self-directed learning and those with less that are statistically significant are shown in a darker tone (Annex A3).
Students who reported less (more) confidence in self-directed learning are those in the bottom (top) quarter of the index of confidence in self-directed learning in their own country/economy.
Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the percentage-point difference between students with more confidence in self-directed learning compared to those with less.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.9.14. See Table V.9.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
Interestingly, belief that there can be more than one correct position in a disagreement is where the relationship is the weakest with self-directed learning capacities, on average and across countries. Indeed, the relationship is non-significant across most countries. In line with findings discussed in Chapter 2, this relationship is largely driven by mathematics performance (Table V.B1.9.10). Top performers in mathematics are generally more comfortable with complex reasoning. The gap between students who think there can be more than one correct position in a disagreement and those who do not reflects the abstract thinking and particular types of reasoning needed for strong mathematics performance – more so than self-directed learning skills. While self-directed learning is important, it is students’ ability to engage in particular types of reasoning and abstract thinking that most shapes their views on how many correct positions there can be in disagreements.
Proactive learning behaviours are strongly associated with confident, self-directed learning
The positive relationship between confidence in self-directed learning and proactive mathematics study behaviour is noteworthy (Figure V.9.3c [available online]). Students who exhibit proactive behaviours are more likely to report more self-directed learning confidence in key areas, on average, and this relationship holds even after accounting for students' and schools’ socio-economic profile and students’ mathematics performance. Most notably, in Hong Kong (China)*, proactive students are about twice as likely to be confident in planning when to do schoolwork on their own, motivating themselves to do schoolwork and assessing their progress with learning, if their school would close again in the future, than their less proactive peers (Table V.B1.9.8).
This relationship is also evident when examining specific proactive behaviours. Students with the greatest self-directed learning confidence put more effort into their mathematics assignments in all countries and economies. Over three-quarters of confident, self-directed learners reported making an effort compared to about half of their less confident peers. The gap is particularly pronounced – exceeding 40 percentage points – in Korea, Malaysia, and Chinese Taipei, and is the smallest in Guatemala with 15 percentage points (Table V.B1.9.18).
Furthermore, confident, self-directed learners are more apt to connect new material to previously learned mathematics lessons in all countries and economies. About 60% of these students reported this proactive behaviour compared to only 35% of their less confident peers, on average across OECD countries. In Albania, Kazakhstan, Korea and Moldova, there are substantive gaps of over 35 percentage points while in Argentina and Belgium the gaps are significant but under 15 percentage points (Table V.B1.9.19).
These findings highlight key areas where students with low confidence in self-directed learning can be supported and activated. Encouraging students to develop control and self-monitoring strategies, critical thinking (perspective-taking) and proactive behaviours can significantly enhance their ability to learn on their own. This is crucial to lifelong learning.
While students take the initiative in cultivating some self-directed learning strategies and attitudes, many are developed in school with the guidance and input of teachers (see Chapter 2). Though weaker, there are, nonetheless, positive relationships between these self-directed behaviours and the cognitive activation practices teachers teach – after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile and students’ performance in mathematics (Table V.B1.9.9).
Previous PISA 2022 analyses have shown that students whose teachers were available to help during COVID-19 school closures have greater confidence in their self-directed learning capacities (OECD, 2023[7]). Teacher support in fostering students’ self-directed learning is important and, with one’s eye on lifelong learning, an outcome of schooling in its own right. One way in which teachers can support students to become strong lifelong learners is by integrating problem-based learning into their teaching. An example of such an ambitious initiative is Japan's Fourth Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education (see Box V.9.1).
Japan’s Fourth Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education sets out the goals for the education system and defines a comprehensive approach to policy implementation.
Under this plan, the first of five policies focuses on developing individuals of all ages to continue to learn for the sustainable development of a globalised society. For example, it highlights the importance of moving away from methods such as rote memorisation towards an approach that fosters the development of competencies and attitudes for lifelong learning. Cultivating the foundations for lifelong learning can start as early as early childhood education. Active learning is encouraged through problem-based learning at schools and, even, in universities. This promotes “learner-oriented education” and the growth of independent and self-directed learners. It also emphasises working adults’ lifelong learning by providing opportunities for reskilling. These include digital education initiatives tailored towards the elderly, for instance, and individuals with disabilities.
Under this plan, the government aims to create an environment that facilitates adult learning by providing more learning opportunities. Programmes such as “Brush up Program for Professionals” and “Career Development Promotion Program” are held in collaboration with universities and industry partners, and offer weekend, evening and online classes. This provides more opportunities for adults with other responsibilities to participate. The Open University of Japan will serve as a hub for lifelong learning by offering adult learning programmes in collaboration with universities, companies, and government agencies.
Source: (MEXT, 2023[8])
Another learning behaviour this report looks at are students’ motivations to learn and take an active role in their learning. The biggest gap between confident, self-directed learners and their less confident peers is connected to intrinsic motivations in most participating countries and economies (Figure V.9.4). Enjoying learning new things in school and liking challenging schoolwork show respective gaps of 25 and 26 percentage points between the most and least confident students, on average. These gaps are significant and above 10 percentage points in most countries. The enjoyment of learning new things in school is considerably higher among confident, self-directed learners in Australia*, Canada*, Finland, Germany, Italy, Macao (China), New Zealand* and Switzerland compared to less confident learners (over 30 percentage points). In terms of liking schoolwork that is challenging, gaps between students who are the most and least confident are the largest and go beyond 35 percentage points in Korea and Malta (Tables V.B1.9.20and V.B1.9.21).
Percentage of students agreeing or strongly agreeing they love learning new things in school
Notes: Only countries and economies with available data are shown.
Percentage-point difference between students with more confidence in self-directed learning and those with less that are statistically significant are shown in a darker tone (Annex A3).
Students who reported less (more) confidence in self-directed learning are those in the bottom (top) quarter of the index of confidence in self-directed learning in their own country/economy.
Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the percentage-point difference between students with more confidence in self-directed learning compared to those with less.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.9.20. See Table V.9.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
Intrinsic motivations are strongly linked to students' confidence in self-directed learning
The relationship between liking challenging schoolwork and learning new things in school, and students' confidence in self-directed learning is the strongest as well, on average and across countries. In both cases, the relationship holds after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile and students’ performance in mathematics (see Table V.B1.9.23).
Students with greater self-directed learning confidence also have greater instrumental or extrinsic motivation. Confident, self-directed learners who believe school teaches them things that can be useful in a job show a 17 percentage-point gap, on average across OECD countries, when compared to their less confident peers. The gap stretches to over 25 percentage points in Albania, Croatia and the United Kingdom*. The average gap is smaller, at 10 percentage points, among students reporting to being motivated in their subject class and having self-directed learning confidence. This relationship is strong, although it is driven by mathematics performance in several countries. (Figures V.9.4d and V.9.4e [available online]). But the consideration that what one learns in school can be useful for jobs still shows a comparatively weaker relationship, suggesting that while instrumental motivations are important, they play a secondary role to intrinsic motivations in driving students' confidence in self-directed learning (Figures V.9.4c and V.9.4d [available online]).
That said, gaps between confident self-directed learners and their less confident peers are consistent across most countries and economies, underscoring the persistent relationship between motivational aspects and confidence in self-directed learning (Table V.B1.9.23). These findings are in line with analyses discussed in Chapter 3 on the relationship between motivations and strategies for sustained lifelong learning.
In conclusion, the relationship between self-directed learning confidence and student motivation is both strong and multifaceted (see Box V.9.2). Intrinsic motivations play a particularly crucial role in fostering confidence in self-directed learning. Educational strategies that enhance both intrinsic and instrumental motivations will help develop self-directed lifelong learners. These insights can shape educational policies and practices that cultivate motivated, independent learners who pursue sustained learning throughout their lives.
The COVID-19 pandemic underscored students’ need for strong self-directed learning skills. While many 15-year-olds are confident in their ability to navigate online learning and plan their work, effective self-directed learning requires a range of proactive behaviours. Students must actively monitor their progress, connect new and previous knowledge, seek feedback, and be ready to put effort into their assignments. Additionally, self-motivation to persevere in spite of difficulties is essential.
To what extent do student motivations, both intrinsic and instrumental, mediate the relationship between these proactive behaviours and students' confidence in self-directed learning? Further analyses – as measured by the index of proactive mathematics study behaviour1 – show that the association of these proactive attitudes with different student motivations can be positive and significant for student autonomy, as measured by its indirect effect on student’s confidence in self-directed learning.
About 11% to 13% of the difference in self-directed learning confidence among more proactive students could be interpreted as the indirect result of differences in intrinsic motivations like enjoying learning new things in school and challenging schoolwork, respectively. The share is as high as 7% among students who are instrumentally motivated by the idea that school teaches things that are useful in a job2 (Table V.B1.9.11).
These findings underscore the complex interplay between student motivation, engagement with learning strategies, and confidence in self-directed learning capacities. They also suggest that, just like learning strategies, motivations do not act alone. It is likely that students are variously incentivised to direct their own learning, combining intrinsic and instrumental motivations.
1. The proactive mathematics study behaviour index used in PISA measures the frequency of students’ engagement in such activities. It includes the three questions mentioned here, and a number of others, including “I put effort into my assignments for mathematics class”, “I made time to learn the material for mathematics class” and “I put effort into my assignments for mathematics class”.
2. The indirect effects described here are based on the coefficients resulting from two linear regressions: (1) the total effect of the PISA index of proactive mathematics study behaviour on confidence for self-directed learning, controlling for students' and schools’ socio-economic profile (measured by the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status [ESCS]), and (2) the effect of the index of proactive mathematics study behaviour on confidence for self-directed learning, when accounting for the indirect effect of students agreeing with the different motivations to learn, controlling for students' and schools’ socio-economic profile. These coefficients are reported in the Table V.B1.9.11
Social and emotional skills (SES) can help shape students' self-directed learning behaviours. PISA data show a positive association between students' confidence in self-directed learning and their SES, a relationship that remains robust even after controlling for mathematics performance. This indicates that SES independently contribute to students' self-directed learning confidence (Figure V.9.5).
Change in the mean index of confidence in self-directed learning with a one-unit increase in each of the social and emotional skills (SES) indices; OECD average
Note: Changes in the index of confidence in self-directed learning are all statistically significant (see Annex A3).
Items are ranked in descending order of the change in the index of confidence in self-directed learning, after accounting for mathematics performance and students' responses to learning strategies items.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.9.24. See Table V.9.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
Of the five SES considered in this section – stress resistance, co-operation, emotional control, curiosity and persistence – students with high SES consistently have more confidence in their ability to autonomously employ the four self-directed learning behaviours analysed: finding resources online, planning schoolwork, motivating oneself, and assessing one's own progress. Notably, students with high SES are most confident in finding resources online, followed by planning schoolwork, assessing progress, and lastly, motivating themselves, on average (Figure V.9.6).
Percentage of students reporting four self-directed behaviours, by bottom and top quarter of social and emotional skills indices; OECD average
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Tables V.B1.9.25-V.B1.9.29. See Table V.9.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
Student persistence drives autonomous lifelong learning
The most persistent students are significantly more inclined to report confidence in the four self-directed behaviours than their least persistent peers (as measured by the index of persistence4 – positive values in the index indicate that students reported more persistent behaviours than did students on average across OECD countries). Interestingly, the gap is particularly large among students who feel confident motivating themselves to do schoolwork, averaging 32 percentage points. The gap is the largest in Australia*, Hong Kong (China)*, the Netherlands* and New Zealand*, where it exceeds 40 percentage points, and is the smallest in Serbia and Montenegro at under 20 percentage points (Table V.B1.9.27).
Conversely, students with the highest stress resistance reported the least confidence in motivating themselves to do schoolwork5. They are also separated from their less stress-resistant peers by an average only of 16 percentage points. Interestingly, in Finland, the gap between the two groups of students is one of the largest across countries and more than three-quarters of students with high stress resistance reported that they are confident in their ability to motivate themselves to do schoolwork. These findings highlight the varying impacts of different SES on self-directed learning behaviours and confidence (Figure V.9.6).
Persistence stands out as having the strongest overall relationship with confidence in self-directed learning both before and after accounting for mathematics performance. This also holds true for each of the four specific self-directed behaviours. The gaps in motivating oneself, assessing progress, and planning schoolwork are particularly large, each showing at least 27 percentage-point differences. Persistence consistently shows the strongest relationship with these attitudes, on average and across most countries with available data. In other words, students with the greatest persistence are more likely to report being confident in finding learning resources on their own, motivating themselves to do schoolwork, planning it ahead of time and assessing how they progress. Persistence drives self-directed learning confidence the most effectively (Table V.B1.9.32).
Curiosity also shows substantial gaps and strong relationships with self-directed learning behaviours, with differences ranging from 17 to 19 percentage points, on average across OECD countries. These gaps are consistent across countries. Curiosity significantly contributes to students' confidence in engaging in autonomous learning activities (Tables V.B1.9.29 and V.B1.9.34).
Cooperative students are also more confident about their self-directed learning strategies, especially in motivating themselves to do schoolwork on their own. This area shows the largest gap between the most and least cooperative students measured by the PISA index (17 percentage points). In Croatia, Mexico and Peru, the gap is over 20 percentage points and at least 80% of the most cooperative students reported feeling confident motivating themselves to do schoolwork (Table V.B1.9.25). This is an interesting finding because students who are more cooperative, along with those who demonstrate higher persistence, emotional control, and stress management, far outstrip peers with fewer SES in terms of motivation to work autonomously. While causality cannot be attributed from these analyses, by promoting SES, schools can cultivate environments where students are better equipped to thrive in diverse and evolving future contexts.
Interestingly, of the five SES analysed, the smallest average gaps are found in students' confidence in finding resources online. These gaps range from 6 to 19 percentage points, with the smallest gap observed among students in the top and bottom quarters of stress resistance. This behaviour shows the weakest relationship with most SES, suggesting that student confidence about finding resources online has been largely assimilated in school and out (Figure V.9.6).
PISA 2022 shows a significant relationship between SES, and students’ mathematics performance in all countries/economies with available data (OECD, 2023[7]). Educational practices would do well to develop students’ SES of persistence, curiosity, and co-operation to help them learn on their own and outside of the classroom throughout their lives.
References
[3] Candy, P. (1991), Self-direction for lifelong learning: A comprehensive guide to theory and practice., San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
[5] Cazan, A. and B. Schiopca (2014), “Self-directed Learning, Personality Traits and Academic Achievement”, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 127, pp. 640-644, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.327.
[2] Council of the European Union (2002), Council Resolution of 27 June 2002 on lifelong learning.
[1] Dignath, C., G. Buettner and H. Langfeldt (2008), “How can primary school students learn self-regulated learning strategies most effectively?”, Educational Research Review, Vol. 3/2, pp. 101-129, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2008.02.003.
[6] Douglass, C. and S. Morris (2014), “Student perspectives on self-directed learning”, Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, pp. 13-25, https://doi.org/10.14434/josotl.v14i1.3202.
[8] MEXT (2023), The Forth Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education, https://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/lawandplan/20240311-ope_dev03-1.pdf (accessed on 24 May 2024).
[7] OECD (2023), PISA 2022 Results (Volume II): Learning During – and From – Disruption, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/a97db61c-en.
[4] Schunk, I. and B. Zimmerman (eds.) (1998), Developing self-fulfilling cycles of academic regulation: An analysis of exemplary instructional models., Guilford Publications.
← 1. The four aspects are formulated in the PISA 2022 student questionnaire as follows: “Finding resources online on my own”, “Planning when to do schoolwork on my own”, “Motivating myself to do schoolwork” and “Assessing my progress with learning”. Students were asked to indicate how confident they would be doing these things if their school building closed again in the future (i.e. not at all confident, not very confident, confident or very confident). These four items are also included in the PISA index of confidence in self-directed learning.
← 2. Indicators in this report are based on students’ reports, which are susceptible to several possible measurement errors: memory decay; social desirability; reference group bias; and response style bias. These biases may operate differently in different cultural contexts, limiting the cross-national comparability of responses see (PISA 2018, Volume 3, Chapter 2).
← 3. In PISA, the index of confidence in self-directed learning includes students’ reports of how confident they felt about having to do a range of self-directed learning tasks ranging from “Finding learning resources online on my own” to “Assessing my progress with learning” should their school building close again in the future. Students with higher scores on the index are more confident in their ability to be self-directed learners, and the opposite is true for students with lower scores.
← 4. Students’ ratings of their agreement with statements about a range of behaviours indicative of persistence (e.g. “I keep working on a task until it is finished”, “I give up after making mistakes”). Each of the 10 items included in this scale have five response options (“Strongly disagree”, “Disagree”, “Neither agree nor disagree”, “Agree”, “Strongly agree”).
← 5. While stress resistance may prove important when working under pressure or in complex circumstances, one way to interpret the fact that students with the highest stress resistance report comparatively less confidence in motivating themselves to do schoolwork is that their ability to manage stress effectively may reduce the urgency or pressure that could drive motivation. Because they are less affected by stress, they may not experience the same level of internal or external pressure to complete tasks, leading to a lower sense of urgency and consequently less self-directed motivation.