This chapter describes the relevance of lifelong learning in the context of the challenges that today's 15-year-olds will face in a highly uncertain future. It identifies a set of skills and attitudes that are key for sustained lifelong learning and maps them to the PISA 2022 data. It sets out the analytical framework of the report and describes the dimensions that are explored in the various chapters that follow.
PISA 2022 Results (Volume V)
Learning Strategies and Attitudes for Life
PISA
Abstract
For Australia*, Canada*, Denmark*, Hong Kong (China)*, Ireland*, Jamaica*, Latvia*, the Netherlands*, New Zealand*, Panama*, the United Kingdom* and the United States*, caution is advised when interpreting estimates because one or more PISA sampling standards were not met (see Reader’s Guide, Annexes A2 and A4).
With profound environmental, social and economic changes sweeping through our societies, education, too, is changing. Not only must education prepare us for the future, it must prepare us to navigate a highly uncertain one.
Nothing makes this clearer than the near-boundless quantity of information technology has made available to us. The counterpart to this information revolution, however, is building the skills to manage it. Education curricula has been addressing this challenge and there is a plethora of formal and informal learning opportunities designed to close skills gaps and help people keep up with technological evolution.
The COVID-19 pandemic was a further catalyst for abrupt changes in schooling. Education systems around the world did their best to maintain continuity with rapid solutions but these were often based on pre-existing education knowledge and experience. The significant learning gaps that are being revealed from this period will impact how we rethink teaching and learning.
Data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) in 2022 show that education systems that were the most resilient during this disruption share common features (OECD, 2023[1]). Among these is student confidence about autonomous learning. But, only a handful of resilient systems had students who confidently undertook their own learning. COVID-19 showed us that education systems need to better prepare students to learn on their own. The challenge now is to determine how much education is equipping students with the skills to not only cope with major disruptions but, most importantly, become autonomous learners.
Climate change and artificial intelligence are pushing us even further to rethink education as not just what but how we learn. Education’s job now is to cultivate students’ motivation and disposition to learn independently, and the self-regulatory skills to do so well. Students should be able to effectively manage and navigate learning environments; set clear goals, strategies and actions; and assess their own progress and motivations.
Education that is adaptable aligns with the learning objectives of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) (UNESCO, 2017[2]). Central to these is the ability to learn autonomously outside traditional settings. This includes:
employing abstract metacognitive strategies in how we learn,
being proactive and decisive,
identifying reliable sources of information,
making informed decisions, and
continuously updating one's skills independently.
Schools can teach students learning strategies early on. This lays the foundation for the confident and autonomous lifelong learning needed to keep pace with changes yet to be known.
Developing resilience to uncertainties the future holds demands a new attitude about learning: that it is something we continue to do long after our traditional school years. Lifelong learning is not only essential for each person’s personal and professional development, it helps us adjust to the shifting environmental, social and economic landscape.
Lifelong learning is a dynamic, multifaceted and continuous process whereby a person acquires skills and knowledge throughout their life (UNESCO, 2021[3]; OECD, 2021[4]). It cannot be confined to a single, specific phase of life or context and extends beyond traditional educational stages, ranging from formal settings such as schools and apprenticeship programmes to informal and non-formal learning settings (OECD, 2019[5]; UNESCO, 2006[6]). As a key element of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 4, lifelong learning is essential to ensure good, inclusive and equitable education for all (United Nations, 2023[7]). Yet, important challenges remain. Data from the Survey of Adult Skills, a product of the OECD Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) has found that about 60% of adults did not participate in adult learning in the 12 months prior to the survey. And, about half of those aged 25 to 65 across the OECD declared no interest in or availability to participate in learning activities available to them through their work (OECD, 2021[4]; OECD, 2019[8]).
Data from the European Union (EU) Adult Education Survey in 2022 are consistent with these findings. Slightly less than half of 25-64 year-olds have participated in formal or non-formal education and training in a given year (46%), on average across the OECD and accession counties participating in the survey. Of those who have not participated, more than two-thirds report that they do not need further education and training (OECD, 2024[9]).
What does PISA data tell us about lifelong learning? PISA cannot directly measure which approaches to learning individuals adopt after the age of 15 but it provides insights into students' readiness to adopt key learning strategies central to self-directed learning. It also measures learners’ motivation to take control of one’s “self-monitoring” and “self-management” processes to achieve specific learning outcomes (Garrison, 1997[10]). For example, PISA asks students whether they ask questions when they do not understand what is being taught, whether they make connections between what they are learning and what they have learned in the past, or how often they encounter cognitive activation practices in mathematics class (see Table V.1.2). Taking control of one's own learning is a key strategy in formal schooling.
The relevance of these factors has been pointed out by analyses with data from PIAAC. Evidence from this programme suggests that adults that reported a stronger drive to learn are more likely to engage in learning activities throughout adulthood (OECD, 2021[4]). What is most relevant for this report is that such analyses suggest that the desire to learn, master difficult subjects and seek additional information when needed develops gradually. They are attitudes towards lifelong learning that typically begin to form early in school.
Assuming agency in one’s education is important for lifelong learning because individuals must be willing and able to pursue learning throughout their lives. Lifelong learning requires a fundamental change in mindset – from passively receiving knowledge to actively participating in one’s own learning process (Candy, 1991[11]). Self-directed learning strategies, skills and competencies are the cornerstones of such a mindset (Zimmerman, 2001[12]; Dignath, Buettner and Langfeldt, 2008[13]; van Hout-Wolters, Simons and Volet, 2000[14]) and will likely guide students' learning throughout their lives.
To analyse the readiness of 15-year-olds to adopt key learning strategies for lifelong learning, it is essential to narrow down and conceptualise what make these strategies effective. The concept of "sustainable learning in education" is particularly useful as it encompasses strategies and skills that enable learners to upgrade their knowledge, inquire, and cope with circumstances that require continuous learning and relearning (Ben-Eliyahu, 2021[15]; Hays and Reinders, 2020[16]). By focusing on this concept, we can identify and analyse the strategies that empower students to continue learning effectively throughout their lives.
Strategies for sustained lifelong learning
PISA plays a central role in understanding the effectiveness of learning strategies around the world. Such effectiveness can be determined by different criteria. In this report, we have chosen to approach this from the perspective of “sustainable learning in education” (Ben-Eliyahu, 2021[15]; Forbes et al., 2023[17]). It identifies four key components of effective learning strategies for sustained learning: reinforcing learning and relearning; independent and collaborative learning; active learning; and transferability.
Table V.1.1 provides detailed descriptions of these components and how these can be approached in PISA.
Source: Based on (Ben-Eliyahu, 2021[15]) and PISA 2022 student questionnaires.
The components described here are interrelated and should not be viewed as separate or isolated characteristics. Each one illustrates a key characteristic of strategies for sustained lifelong learning. Certain components overlap, facilitating, for instance, both knowledge renewal and relearning, and collaborative learning efforts. And, while one of the four components is transferability, all strategies should, in principle, be transferable. The overlap between these components reflects the complex and interrelated nature of how and why learning strategies are implemented.
In the PISA assessment, students reported on their learning behaviours and strategies as well as those their teachers use or encourage them to use. By examining these behaviours and strategies within the framework of the four learning components, this report assesses how effectively education systems are equipping students for sustained lifelong learning.
Mapping sustainable learning strategies to PISA data
Schooling is crucial for equipping students with learning strategies. It extends beyond the development of individual skills to structured learning environments in which teacher input and peer interaction shape students’ acquisition and refinement of these strategies (OECD, 2023[1]). This report’s analysis of 15-year-olds' learning strategies is based on the assumption that long-term exposure to schooling has profoundly shaped such strategies (OECD, 2010[18]).
This report focuses on learning strategies and dispositions measured in PISA. The components presented in Table V.1.1 were used to guide which learning strategies and student dispositions the report should focus on. These are listed in two of the following tables in this chapter.
Table V.1.2 presents learning strategies that students have taken the initiative to use themselves and those that their teachers have taught and encouraged them to use1. For the most part, these strategies encompass cognitive and metacognitive processes, and self-regulated learning techniques. Research shows that students proactively select and structure them to improve their educational outcomes, making these strategies important components of effective independent learning (Zimmerman, 2001[12]). For example, asking questions in class when students do not understand what is being taught is a key component of monitoring and understanding learning gaps. It is an active and conscious learning act that supports individual and group learning, and can be applied to most interactive learning situations and contexts.
Note: The concepts listed here are intended to serve as examples of the strategies, attitudes and tasks that are analysed in this report. It is not an exhaustive list.
Source: Student questionnaire for PISA 2022 and based on (Artelt et al., 2003[19])
Certain learning strategies are used more than others and this is often related to how effective they are in helping students achieve academic goals, especially when it comes to school-based goals. This correlation has been extensively explored in the academic literature (Soderstrom and Bjork, 2015[20]).
The motivation to learn
While sustainable learning strategies are often the end-product of schooling, that is not where the story ends: they can spur individuals to continually renew their skills and knowledge long after they have left formal schooling. And, while it is important to assess the relationship between these strategies and students’ academic performance, strong PISA performance alone does not define an effective lifelong learner. Neither does mere knowledge of learning strategies: students might know what the best learning strategies are but still not necessarily use them. The literature on self-regulated learning suggests that motivational processes bear closer attention in robust information-processing (Dignath, Buettner and Langfeldt, 2008[13]).
This is why this report looks further than the relationship between learning strategies and academic achievement to analyse students’ motivations and readiness to learn. These analyses illustrate the significant link between motivation and learning outcomes. By examining the triangular relationship between learning strategies, motivation and self-belief, that is, the confidence learners have in themselves, the report provides insights into how to cultivate effective learning strategies, boost motivation and strengthen self-belief. It is important to recognise that these findings do not imply causality – for example, that increased motivation leads individuals to use effective learning strategies and improves performance. But, they do point to the interconnected and triangular nature of the relationship between motivation and the use of learning strategies, and a nuanced perspective on how motivation enhances sustained learning and, consequently, educational outcomes (Artelt et al., 2003[19]).
Table V.1.3 presents different approaches to learner motivation and self-perceptions of competence. Motivation is the main catalyst for learning efforts but self-belief is crucial too. In this report, self-belief encompasses three concepts: self-efficacy, self-concept and growth mindset. Self-efficacy refers to students’ confidence in their ability to perform well even in difficult tasks while self-concept has to do with how capable they believe they are at learning new things. Lastly, growth mindset is the belief that intelligence and skills can be developed through work and effort rather than being fixed traits.
Note: The concepts listed here are intended to serve as examples of the strategies, attitudes and tasks that are analysed in this report. It is not an exhaustive list.
Source: Student questionnaire for PISA 2022 and based on (Artelt et al., 2003[19]).
The motivation and self-belief that are so crucial to sustained learning are, themselves, related to social and emotional skills such as curiosity and persistence. Intellectual curiosity and persistence indicate a learner's willingness to invest significant time and effort into understanding something (OECD, 2023[1]). Similarly, how co-operative a person is will influence what kind of learning strategies work best for them: collaborative or individual learning. Effective learners can learn both independently and in a group, and this is important in lifelong learning. Therefore, social and emotional skills including co-operation and emotional control or stress resistance, are highly relevant to students' autonomous learning and confidence in learning. Understanding the nuanced relationship between these skills and students' approaches to learning provides valuable insights into how these skills can be nurtured to support all students to reach their full potential for learning throughout their lives.
Table V.1.4 catalogues the social and emotional skills considered in these analyses and highlights how learners use them to regulate or enhance their learning (OECD, 2021[21]). 2
Note: For further information on the construct of indices, consult the PISA 2022 Technical Report (OECD, 2024[22]).
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 database and based on (OECD, 2021[21]).
In summary, this report draws on PISA 2022 data to examine the triangular relationship between learning strategies, motivation and self-belief. These are the essential characteristics of sustained lifelong learning.
References
[19] Artelt, C. et al. (2003), Learners for life: student approaches to learning results from PISA 2000.
[15] Ben-Eliyahu, A. (2021), “Sustainable Learning in Education”, Sustainability, Vol. 13/8, p. 4250, https://doi.org/10.3390/su13084250.
[11] Candy, P. (1991), Self-Direction for Lifelong Learning: A Comprehensive Guide to Theory and Practice, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
[13] Dignath, C., G. Buettner and H. Langfeldt (2008), “How can primary school students learn self-regulated learning strategies most effectively?”, Educational Research Review, Vol. 3/2, pp. 101-129, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2008.02.003.
[17] Forbes, D. et al. (2023), “Sustainable Strategies for Teaching and Learning Online”, Sustainability, Vol. 15/17, p. 13118, https://doi.org/10.3390/su151713118.
[10] Garrison, D. (1997), “Self-Directed Learning: Toward a Comprehensive Model”, Adult Education Quarterly, Vol. 48/1, pp. 18-33, https://doi.org/10.1177/074171369704800103.
[16] Hays, J. and H. Reinders (2020), “Sustainable learning and education: A curriculum for the future”, International Review of Education, Vol. 66/1, pp. 29-52, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-020-09820-7.
[9] OECD (2024), Education at a Glance 2024: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c00cad36-en.
[22] OECD (2024), PISA 2022 Technical Report, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/01820d6d-en.
[1] OECD (2023), PISA 2022 Results (Volume II): Learning During – and From – Disruption, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/a97db61c-en.
[21] OECD (2021), Beyond Academic Learning: First Results from the Survey of Social and Emotional Skills, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en.
[4] OECD (2021), OECD Skills Outlook 2021: Learning for Life, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/0ae365b4-en.
[8] OECD (2019), Getting Skills Right: Future-Ready Adult Learning Systems, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264311756-en.
[5] OECD (2019), OECD Skills Outlook 2019: Thriving in a Digital World, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/df80bc12-en.
[18] OECD (2010), Mathematics teaching and learning strategies in PISA, OECD.
[20] Soderstrom, N. and R. Bjork (2015), “Learning Versus Performance”, Perspectives on Psychological Science, Vol. 10/2, pp. 176-199, https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615569000.
[3] UNESCO (2021), Lifelong Learning.
[2] UNESCO (2017), Education for Sustainable Development Goals: learning objectives, UNESCO, https://doi.org/10.54675/cgba9153.
[6] UNESCO (2006), Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2006: Literacy for life, GEM Report UNESCO, https://doi.org/10.54676/hfrh4626.
[7] United Nations (2023), The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023 Special Edition, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2023/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2023.pdf (accessed on 11 April 2024).
[14] van Hout-Wolters, B., R. Simons and S. Volet (2000), “Active Learning: Self-directed Learning and Independent Work”, in New Learning, Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47614-2_2.
[12] Zimmerman, B. and D. Schunk (eds.) (2001), Theories of self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview and analysis., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
← 1. The PISA 2022 student questionnaire explores these dimensions through various items. Some items are designed to elicit opinions (e.g. “Some people are just not good at mathematics, no matter how hard they study”). These items usually provide a four-point scale for response, from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”, or another similar scale, such as level of confidence. Other items are phrased in terms of frequency (e.g. “I asked questions when I did not understand the mathematics material being taught”). Responses to these items generally provide a five-point scale ranging from “never or almost never” to “all or almost all of the time”. Many of the questionnaire items are combined into a series of derived or index variables that represent broader underlying constructs. For example, the index of proactive mathematics study behaviour is derived from students’ responses to eight items on the student questionnaire about the extent to which students engage in specific proactive behaviours in mathematics class or with mathematics class materials and tasks. In this report, indices and individual items will be considered, as shown in Tables V.1.2, V.1.3 and V.1.4.
← 2. Indices representing teaching and learning strategies are of considerable interest here as well because they are more efficient for modelling. Although they are more abstract than observed variables, they encapsulate a greater amount of information on a single scale and are more consistent with model assumptions. However, analyses with individual items are also reported as they often provide clear and more direct descriptions of student behaviour.