This chapter explores how students use digital resources and how confident they are in doing so. It also examines how students evaluate, manage and share information on digital platforms and how this relates to strategies for sustained learning and motivation to learn. The chapter looks at how interested students are in learning more about the use of digital resources in order to understand digital literacy-related motivations, which can strengthen the way students use digital tools and promote responsible behaviour with online information and a commitment to lifelong learning. Finally, it analyses how students perceive their teachers' digital competence.
PISA 2022 Results (Volume V)
Learning Strategies and Attitudes for Life
PISA
Abstract
For Australia*, Canada*, Denmark*, Hong Kong (China)*, Ireland*, Jamaica*, Latvia*, the Netherlands*, New Zealand*, Panama*, the United Kingdom* and the United States*, caution is advised when interpreting estimates because one or more PISA sampling standards were not met (see Reader’s Guide, Annexes A2 and A4).
The COVID-19 pandemic brought radical changes to education around the world. While the performance of 15-year-old students had already begun deteriorating before the pandemic, PISA 2022 shows a drastic skills drop in mathematics in most countries/economies between 2022 and the last round of PISA testing in 2018 (OECD, 2023[1]). The reasons for this decline are many, including challenges like the sudden urgency to integrate digital technology into teaching and learning. Another is how prepared students were to take over their own learning when schools shut down (see Chapter 9 of this report and PISA 2022 Volume II).
Add to the lessons of COVID-19 the rapid rise of generative AI and the question becomes unavoidable: how can we best use these digital tools to help students meet their learning needs? How will they shape future learning? This section looks at digital literacy skills for lifelong learning and draws on findings from the PISA 2022 questionnaire on information and communication technology (ICT).1
The analyses explore how students use digital resources and how confident they are doing so. They also examine how students evaluate and manage, transform, create and share information on digital platforms, and how this relates to strategies for sustained learning and other outcomes such as mathematics performance. These findings are crucial for understanding how ready students are for lifelong learning in a digital world.
Most students can easily find relevant information online, reflecting their basic proficiency with digital tools. But, only about half of students can easily judge the quality of online information. Most low performers (60%) cannot easily gauge online information quality. Only in Costa Rica and the United States* did slightly over half of low performers report they can. This reveals a significant challenge for independent lifelong learning.
Cautious online learners who evaluate online information quality are usually meticulous, critical thinkers and proactive learners. They are also more likely to be intrinsically and instrumentally motivated to learn. Students in Ireland* demonstrate a particularly strong relationship between the ability to critically evaluate online information and various positive learning strategies, especially double-checking their homework and proactively relating new material to previously acquired knowledge. In Macao (China), the relationship between critical thinking and this type of digital literacy is particularly strong even after accounting for students' socio-economic status and performance in mathematics.
Students who frequently use digital resources for school-related activities are more likely to be confident in their ability to use these tools effectively. And, students' perceptions of their teachers’ digital proficiency positively relate to their online information habits. Education systems that provide professional development for teachers so they can smoothly integrate technology into learning experiences could strengthen students’ digital literacy. At least around 70% of students reported that teachers at their school have good digital skills in the classroom and integrated digital resources into their teaching, on average, across OECD countries. The fewest number of students to report that their teachers are digitally literate are in Argentina, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, Morocco, and Poland (between 50% and 60%).
Regarding gender, gaps persist in how interested students are in digital fields in several countries and economies. Boys express more interest in computer programming in 41 countries and economies. However, more girls than boys are interested in programming in Albania, the Dominican Republic, Jordan, Morocco and Thailand.
Digital literacy is a broad concept that encompasses a wide range of skills needed to navigate and engage effectively in the digital world. One critical area of digital literacy is the ability to distinguish between reliable and unreliable information online. This requires a combination of skills to assess the credibility of sources, understand bias and cross-reference information across multiple sources. Measures to achieve this include teaching students how to check facts, identify misinformation and use reliable sources. Developing these skills is essential in today's digital age, where the amount of information is overwhelming and often misleading (OECD, 2021[2]; Burns and Gottschalk, 2020[3]).These are the aspects considered in the analyses presented in this chapter.
The important role of teachers and schools in developing these aspects of digital literacy cannot be overstated. Educators are in a unique position to guide students through the complexities of the digital landscape. Teachers can provide students with the tools they need to critically evaluate online information and develop healthy digital habits. Schools can support this by providing professional development for teachers, integrating technology into learning experiences, and fostering an environment that encourages curiosity and critical thinking. This approach ensures that students are not only proficient in using digital tools but able to navigate the digital world responsibly and effectively (McKnight et al., 2016[4]; Paniagua and Istance, 2018[5]).
PISA 2022 asked students about their use of digital resources2 for class activities and doing homework. Tasks include creating multimedia presentations and finding information online3. The data provide important insights into how these digital practices relate to students' confidence in their digital skills.
Frequency of use is positively related to students' confidence
Students who frequently use digital resources for school-related activities tend to be more confident in their ability to use these tools effectively.4 This relationship holds after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile and performance in mathematics, on average, and across countries and economies. This is particularly true for two activities: finding information about real-world problems (e.g. climate change, oil spills) and writing/editing text for school assignments (Tables V.B1.10.32 and V.B1.10.33).
That said, the regular use of digital devices for schoolwork is culturally embedded. Education systems can have very different approaches to digital technologies in everyday learning. Moreover, the availability of digital resources can vary considerably, with socio-economically advantaged students in most countries and economies reporting higher digital use in enquiry-based learning activities than their disadvantaged peers. Only in Czechia is this difference non-significant (Table V.B1.10.5).
Across OECD countries, weekly use of digital resources appears to be the norm, regardless of students’ performance level. For example, an average of 9% of students in OECD countries reported using digital resources to find information about real-world problems every day for school-related activities but 26% do so weekly. In contrast, 17% never or almost never use digital resources for this. In Korea, Morocco, Chinese Taipei, and Türkiye, over 30% of students reported never doing so. In Japan, over half of students reported never or almost never doing so (52%) (Figure V.10.1 and Table V.B1.10.4).
Low performers reported similar behaviours, with about 8% using digital resources daily, 21% weekly, and 23% never or almost never, on average. In Korea and Chinese Taipei, about 45% of low performers never use digital resources to find information about real-world problems, rising to 66% in Japan. Skilled performers also show varied engagement, with 10% doing so daily, 28% weekly, and 14% never or almost never. Denmark* stands out with at least 40% of skilled performers using digital resources for this activity daily or weekly (Table V.B1.10.23)
Percentage of students reporting they use digital resources to conduct the following activities
Note: Only countries and economies with available data are shown.
For each graph, countries and economies are ranked in descending order of the percentage of students reporting doing the above activities at least once a week, when using digital resources.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.10.4. See Table V.10.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
When it comes to writing or editing texts for school assignments, an average of 11% of students in OECD countries reported doing this everyday but 27% do so weekly. In contrast, 14% never or almost never engage in this activity, with higher rates in Brazil, Japan, Malaysia, Morocco, and Türkiye (Figure V.10.1 and Table V.B1.10.4). Among low performers, 22% reported writing or editing text on a weekly basis and 21% never or almost never do so. Lastly, 29% of skilled performers do this weekly while only 10% never or almost never do so (Table V.B1.10.22).
Policy makers should target support for students’ digital literacy, especially disadvantaged students. Ensuring equitable access to digital resources and integrating the use of ICT in inquiry-based learning activities can help bridge the digital divide between advantaged and disadvantaged students. By focusing on these inequalities, education systems can better prepare students for lifelong learning and success in a digital world.
Most students can easily find relevant information online
When we look more in detail at students' confidence using digital resources for their own learning and for completing school tasks, there are significant differences between certain activities and between countries/economies (Table V.B1.10.15). A focus on two fundamental tasks of digital literacy – searching for and finding relevant information online, and assessing the quality of the information found – provides remarkable insights. These tasks are key indicators of students' ability to navigate effectively and engage critically with digital content.
On average, 64% of students in OECD countries reported that they can easily search for and find relevant information online while 21% can do so with some effort. In contrast, 6% of students have difficulty, 6% are unable to do so and 3% are unfamiliar with the task (Figure V.10.2 and Table V.B1.10.15). Countries such as Denmark* and Singapore have the highest proportions of students who can easily find information online (at least 75%) whereas in Jordan and Morocco, at least one in five students reported that they are unable to do this (Figure V.10.2b [available online]). Education systems might focus on students who struggle most with digital tasks. They can be numerous in some countries and economies.
A more granular look at the relationship between students of different performance levels and their ability to find information online shows interesting disparity. Among low performers, 45% said they can easily find information online, 27% can do so with some effort but 14% are unable to, on average. In comparison, 76% of skilled performers find it easy, 17% can do it with some effort and only 3% are unable to. This emphasises the need for targeted support for low performers to bridge the digital divide (Figure V.10.2 and Table V.B1.10.18).
Only about half of students can judge the quality of online information
Being able to tell if information online is credible and of good quality is critical. Only 51% of students in OECD countries reported they can easily assess the quality of online information and 33% reported they can do so with some effort. Some 9% struggle and 4% are unable to judge the quality of online information at all (Figure V.10.2). In countries like Brunei Darussalam, Croatia, Estonia, Japan, Macao (China), and Slovenia, at least 40% of students reported being able to evaluate information quality with some effort (Figure V.10.2b [available online] and Table V.B1.10.15). Developing students’ ability to identify reliable online information sources should be a priority for education systems.
Strikingly, most low performers (60%) cannot easily judge the quality of information found online while 57% of skilled performers are able to do so easily, on average across OECD countries (Figure V.10.2). Only in Costa Rica and the United States* did slightly over half of low performers report they can easily do so. A significant proportion of students, especially low performers, lack the necessary skills to navigate the vast amount of information available on the Internet (Table V.B1.10.19). Policy approaches can support students to develop these skills by adapting curricula. For example, the Learn to Discern: Media Literacy programme in Ukraine aims to improve students' ability to navigate digital spaces and has shown positive results (see Box V.10.2)
Percentage of students reporting they are able to do the following tasks when using digital resources; OECD average
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Tables V.B1.10.15, V.B1.10.18 and V.B1.10.19. See Table V.10.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
Confident students are more likely to evaluate the quality, credibility, and accuracy of online information
Further analyses show that students’ confidence about their digital skills is positively related to their ability to evaluate the quality, credibility, and accuracy of online information, even after controlling for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile, and students’ mathematics performance (Table V.B1.10.28). This underlines the importance of developing students’ digital literacy and confidence to combat disinformation. Being able to tell the difference between good and bad information is a crucial aspect of lifelong learning, especially among low performers who already struggle finding the information they need online. As generative AI capabilities grow, the ability to distinguish accurate information from misinformation and deliberate disinformation in the online sphere becomes increasingly important. The implications of this are important for both school-based and lifelong learning.
Learn to Discern, which was developed by IREX – an international organisation focusing on development and education – aims to improve media and information literacy by building the agency and skills of individuals who interact with information in the digital sphere. This approach has been adapted to various countries, including Serbia, North Macedonia, Jordan, Tunisia, Guatemala, Peru, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia.
First launched in Ukraine as a pilot project in 2015 in response to misinformation, the "Learn to Discern: Media Literacy" programme integrates critical information-consumption skills into existing secondary school curricula across five subjects for students in Grades 8 to 10. These include Ukrainian language and literature, Ukrainian and world history, and art. More than 300 lessons and 400 exercises have been developed as part of the programme.
Since its launch, the programme has evolved into various projects and reaches a wide audience, including secondary education institutions, higher education institutions, post-graduate teacher education institutions, as well as civil servants, internally displaced persons, and the general public. By early 2024, the programme had reached more than 20 000 educators, civil servants, journalists and community leaders, and more than 84 000 students, 3 612 teachers, 864 principals, and 1 558 schools.
Evaluations reveal that students showed better performance in skills such as distinguishing facts from opinion, detecting false stories and hate speech, and demonstrating deeper knowledge of the news media sector.
With the development of digital technology and the acceleration of AI-created content, students need to be able to question sources, authorship, reliability, and credibility of information. These skills go beyond identifying fake news and disinformation; they are essential for making the informed decisions that are the foundation of functioning societies and democracies (OECD, 2024[9]; OECD, 2021[2]).
Teachers, schools and education systems play a central role in teaching students how to navigate digital learning environments by providing effective tools for searching for information online. The motivations and strategies students draw on for sustained lifelong learning are the same that make for informed decision making in the digital world.
Evaluating online information aligns with intrinsic and instrumental motivations
PISA 2022 data show that the ability to critically evaluate online information5 is positively related to students’ motivation to learn, particularly intrinsic motivations driven by curiosity. Students who check the quality, credibility and accuracy of online information; compare different sources; or discuss the accuracy of online information are more likely to be those who enjoy solving problems creatively, and developing and testing hypotheses based on what they observe. In Malaysia, students who critically evaluate online information are almost twice as likely to be those who enjoy thinking up new ways to solve problems. When looking at developing and testing hypotheses, the relationship is the strongest in Denmark*, Estonia and Ireland*. Students who critically evaluate online information are also more likely to express a love of learning new things at school, especially for students in Denmark* and Ireland*. This holds after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile, and students’ mathematics performance. (Table V.B1.10.27).
Students who diligently check online information are also more likely to have instrumental or extrinsic motivations like wanting to do well in their mathematics class and thinking that school teaches things which could be useful in a job, after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile, and performance in mathematics. These relationships are positive and significant across all countries and economies, and are the strongest for both instrumental motivations in Brunei Darussalam and Thailand (Table V.B1.10.27).
Critically evaluating online information not only fosters students’ deeper engagement with learning, it aligns with both their intrinsic and instrumental motivations, strengthening them along with their curiosity for lifelong learning.
Cautious online learners are also likely to be meticulous critical thinkers and proactive learners
Students who check the quality, credibility and accuracy of online information are more likely to be meticulous students, critical thinkers and proactive learners who make connections between what they learn and what they know.
Meticulousness, particularly when checking homework, involves attention to detail. Students who verify the quality, credibility and accuracy of online information are more likely to be those who double-check their homework before handing it in. The relationship is positive and strong across all countries and economies after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile, and students’ mathematics performance. Interestingly, the relationship is the strongest in Ireland* and it is so regardless of performance in mathematics (Table V.B1.10.26).
Clearly, critical thinking is essential for this type of digital literacy. Students who check the quality, credibility and accuracy of online information are more likely to look at things from different angles and consider everybody’s perspective before taking a position. Both relationships are positive in all countries and economies after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile, and students’ mathematics performance. In Macao (China) the relationship is the strongest for both critical thinking (perspective-taking) strategies (Table V.B1.10.26).
Evaluating online information aligns with connecting new and prior learning
Another interesting finding is that students who check the quality, credibility and accuracy of online information are more likely to proactively relate new material to what they have previously learned. This practice of building on solid, acquired knowledge is a powerful tool for distinguishing valid information from falsehood. Again, the relationship is positive and strong across all countries and economies after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile, and students’ mathematics performance. In Ireland* we find the strongest relationship: students who critically evaluate online information are the most likely to be those who try to make connections between new and previously learned material (Table V.B1.10.26).
Percentage of students agreeing or strongly agreeing with the following statements; OECD average
Items are ranked in descending order of the percentage of students.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.10.7. See Table V.10.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
On average, 72% of students in OECD countries compare different sources when searching for information online. But, 28% share made-up information on social networks without flagging its inaccuracy (Figure V.10.3). If we look at students at different performance levels, 79% of skilled performers compare sources when searching for information while 60% of low performers do. Additionally, 41% of low performers share false information without flagging it whereas only 19% of skilled performers do (Tables V.B1.10.7 and V.B1.10.24). Careful online information habits are positively related to performance in mathematics (Table V.B1.10.9). Schools and teachers have a crucial role to play in helping students, especially those who are struggling, to develop the critical practices to evaluate online information, enabling them to distinguish credible sources from misinformation in an increasingly digital world.
Sustained lifelong learning abilities and dispositions like critical thinking, proactive learning habits, meticulousness, and intrinsic and instrumental motivations are also those that strengthen responsible behaviour around online information. Education systems that pay attention to these skills and attitudes will be contributing to lifelong learners who are properly informed and responsible online citizens.
Understanding students’ digital literacy-related motivations can strengthen the way students use digital tools and promote responsible behaviour around online information and commitment to lifelong learning.
PISA asked students about their interest in learning more about digital resources and computer programming, and how useful they think digital skills are for future employment.
Most 15-year-olds want to learn more about digital resources but gender gaps persist
About 62% of students in OECD countries want to learn more about digital resources6, 51% are interested in learning computer programming and 66% see digital resources as useful for job prospects, on average. But there are gender differences in these interests: in 29 out of 52 countries and economies with available data, more boys than girls reported interest in learning about digital resources. Conversely, in 15 countries (Albania, Argentina, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, the Dominican Republic, Georgia, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Morocco, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Thailand and Türkiye) more girls than boys expressed interest in these areas (Figure V.10.4 and Tables V.B1.10.10 and V.B1.10.11).
Boys consider digital resources to be useful for future jobs to a greater degree than girls in 29 countries and economies but the opposite is true in 13 countries (Albania, Brazil, Bulgaria, the Dominican Republic, Georgia, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Morocco, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Thailand and Türkiye). Interest in computer programming also reveals a gender gap, with boys expressing more interest in 41 countries and economies. However, in Albania, the Dominican Republic, Jordan, Morocco and Thailand, more girls than boys are interested in programming (Figure V.10.4 and Table V.B1.10.13).
Schools need to put more effort into breaking down gender stereotypes. The persistent gender gap in the digital sphere in several countries suggests that societal and cultural factors continue to influence students' perceptions of appropriate fields of study and, even, career paths. This limits opportunities for both boys and girls, and reinforces damaging ideas about gender roles and abilities (Wang and Degol, 2016[10]; Cheryan et al., 2017[11]).
Gender stereotypes that prevent students from developing digital skills pose significant challenges for lifelong learning, as well. Encouraging both boys and girls to engage with digital literacy and resources can help close the gap. This ensures that all students have equal opportunities to develop these essential skills for the future learning required to thrive in a digitally-driven world.
Percentage-point difference between boys and girls (boys - girls) agreeing or strongly agreeing with the following types of interest
Notes: Only countries and economies with available data are shown.
Percentage-point differences between boys and girls that are statistically significant are shown in a darker tone (Annex A3).
Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the gender gap of agreeing or strongly agreeing they are interested in learning more about digital resources.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Tables V.B1.10.11, V.B1.10.12 and V.B1.10.13. See Table V.10.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
There is room for boosting interest in ICT skills among low-performing students
An average of 67% of skilled performers in mathematics in OECD countries want to learn more about digital resources and 72% of them want to because they see the potential for a future job. A little more than half of skilled mathematics performers (53%) are interested in computer programming (Table V.B1.10.25).
Only just above half of low performers (54%) want to learn more about digital resources and 48% are interested in computer programming, on average. Slightly more see the interest of digital skills for a future job (57%) (Table V.B1.10.25). Schools and teachers can encourage students’ interest in the digital sphere, especially low-performing students. One lever to consider is that students’ interest in digital resources is positively related to their performance in mathematics, with strong differences between skilled and low performers (Table V.B1.10.14).
Finally, analyses suggest that students who are interested in learning about digital resources are more likely to be meticulous critical thinkers, creative problem-solvers and proactive learners who make connections between new and prior knowledge. They recognise the usefulness of these skills for future employment and, to a lesser extent, show interest in learning computer programming (Tables V.B1.10.34, V.B1.10.35 and V.B1.10.36).
Creative problem-solvers are likely to be interested in learning more about digital resources
Students interested in learning more about digital resources are also more likely to report that they enjoy thinking about new ways to solve problems and that classroom activities and tasks encourage them to do this. This positive relationship holds even after controlling for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile, and students’ performance in mathematics (Table V.B1.10.34).
PISA asked students about the availability, accessibility and quality of digital resources in their school. The results7 show that students' perceptions of their school's digital resources are positively related to their habits of ensuring the accuracy of online information even after controlling for the socio-economic profiles of students and schools. This relationship holds true even with schools whose principals reported that instruction is hindered by a lack of digital resources or poor quality digital resources (Table V.B1.10.30).
How students perceive their school’s digital resources can help with their online information practices
Good access to ICT resources at school not only enhances students’ learning outcomes but equips them with essential skills for lifelong learning. Education systems that invest in their schools’ digital infrastructure and equipment will be better positioned to support their students’ future learning endeavours. Still, equipment is not everything: how teachers use digital resources in their classroom is as important.
PISA data show that students who believe that their teachers have the skills to use digital tools in the classroom and integrate these resources into their teaching are better at evaluating the quality, credibility and accuracy of online information. This is true even after accounting for students' and schools' socio-economic profile, and principals’ reports of instructional hindrances due to the lack or poor quality of digital resources (Table V.B1.10.30).
Students’ perceptions of their teachers’ digital proficiency relate positively to their online information habits
Students who believe that the teachers in their school have the necessary skills to use digital devices in class are more likely to compare different sources when searching for information online. They are also more likely to check the accuracy of online information before sharing it on social networks (Table V.B1.10.31). This holds even after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile, and students’ performance in mathematics. Students believing their teachers have sufficient digital literacy seems to be important for their own digital literacy, and this is crucial for lifelong learning.
The good news is that most students reported that teachers at their school have good digital skills in the classroom (70%). They also said teachers at their school integrated digital resources into their teaching (77%). Even in Argentina, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, Morocco, and Poland, where the least number of students reported that their teachers were only digitally literate, at least half still think their teachers do have some level of competence. This suggests that teachers widely recognise the importance of digital skills, while highlighting areas where professional development and support are needed (Table V.B1.10.1).
PISA 2022 findings support the notion that teachers are essential in developing students' digital literacy and critical-thinking skills. And, schools must prioritise equipping teachers with the necessary skills and resources to effectively integrate digital technologies into their teaching practices. This not only enhances students' traditional learning outcomes but prepares them for the complexities of the digital age and the lifelong learning that will accompany them.
References
[3] Burns, T. and F. Gottschalk (eds.) (2020), Education in the Digital Age: Healthy and Happy Children, Educational Research and Innovation, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1209166a-en.
[11] Cheryan, S. et al. (2017), “Why are some STEM fields more gender balanced than others?”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 143/1, pp. 1-35, https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000052.
[6] IREX (n.d.), Strengthening Media Literacy in the Ukrainian Education System, https://www.irex.org/project/strengthening-media-literacy-ukrainian-education-system (accessed on 24 May 2024).
[4] McKnight, K. et al. (2016), “Teaching in a Digital Age: How Educators Use Technology to Improve Student Learning”, Journal of Research on Technology in Education, Vol. 48/3, pp. 194-211, https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2016.1175856.
[7] Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine (n.d.), Програма «Вивчай та розрізняй: інфомедійна грамотність», https://mon.gov.ua/ministerstvo-2/diyalnist/mizhnarodna-spivpratsya-2/spivpratsya-z-mizhnarodnimi-organizatsiyami/rada-mizhnarodnikh-naukovikh-doslidzhen-ta-obminiv-irex/programa-vivchay-ta-rozriznyay-infomediyna-gramotnist (accessed on 20 July 2024).
[8] Murrock, E. et al. (2018), “Winning The War On State-Sponsored Propaganda: Results From An Impact Study Of A Ukrainian News Media And Information Literacy Program”, Journal of Media Literacy Education, Vol. 10/2, pp. 53-85, https://doi.org/10.23860/jmle-2018-10-2-4.
[9] OECD (2024), “Students, digital devices and success”, OECD Education Policy Perspectives, No. 102, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9e4c0624-en.
[1] OECD (2023), PISA 2022 Results (Volume I): The State of Learning and Equity in Education, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/53f23881-en.
[2] OECD (2021), 21st-Century Readers: Developing Literacy Skills in a Digital World, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/a83d84cb-en.
[5] Paniagua, A. and D. Istance (2018), Teachers as Designers of Learning Environments: The Importance of Innovative Pedagogies, Educational Research and Innovation, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264085374-en.
[10] Wang, M. and J. Degol (2016), “Gender Gap in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM): Current Knowledge, Implications for Practice, Policy, and Future Directions”, Educational Psychology Review, Vol. 29/1, pp. 119-140, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9355-x.
← 1. The optional PISA 2022 questionnaire on information and communication technology (ICT) was administered to 54 out of the 81 participating countries and economies.
← 2. Analyses in this chapter are based on the optional PISA 2022 information and communication technology (ICT) questionnaire, which asked students about the digital resources they use both inside and outside school. Digital resources refer specifically to digital devices or 'hardware' (e.g. computers, tablets, smartphones, 3D printers), software (e.g. programs, apps, communication tools, educational learning tools) and online resources (e.g. websites, web portals).
← 3. The index of use of ICT in enquiry-based learning activities covers students’ responses of how often they use digital resources for various school-related activities (e.g. “Create a multi-media presentation with pictures, sound or video”, “Track the progress of your own work or projects”). Each of the 10 items included in this scale had five response options (“Never or almost never”, “About once or twice a year”, “About once or twice a month”, “About once or twice a week”, “Every day or almost every day”).
← 4. The PISA index of self-efficacy in digital competencies groups students’ responses on how well they can do various tasks using digital resources (e.g. “Search for and find relevant information online”, “Write or edit text for a school assignment”). Each of the 14 items included in this scale have four substantive response options (“I cannot do this”, “I struggle to do this on my own”, “I can do this with a bit of effort”, “I can easily do this”) and an additional response option “I don’t know what this is”, which was recoded as missing prior to scaling.
← 5. As measured by the PISA index of students’ practices regarding online information, which covers students’ ratings of their agreement with various statements about their practices regarding online information (e.g. “When searching for information online I compare different sources”, “I discuss the accuracy of online information with friends or other students”). Each of the six items included in this scale had four response options (“Strongly disagree”, “Disagree”, “Agree”, “Strongly agree”).
← 6. As part of the ICT familiarity questionnaire, students were asked about digital resources they might use both inside and outside of school.
Digital resources in this context refer to the following:
digital devices or 'hardware' (e.g. computers, tablets, smartphones, 3D printers)
Software (e.g. programmes, apps, communication tools, educational learning tools); and
online resources (e.g. websites, web portals)
← 7. The index of quality of access to ICT covers students’ agreement with various statements about ICT resources at their school (e.g. “There are enough digital devices with access to the Internet at my school”, “The school’s Internet speed is sufficient”). Each of the nine items included in this scale had four response options (“Strongly disagree”, “Disagree”, “Agree”, “Strongly agree”).