This chapter examines students' attitudes about the future, such as the ability to seek information for future opportunities and career expectations, and how these relate to students’ attitudes and dispositions towards learning. It also explores how these attitudes change between students in general and vocational education, how career expectations differ across different groups of students and, finally, whether students’ educational expectations reflect their career plans and expectations.
PISA 2022 Results (Volume V)
Learning Strategies and Attitudes for Life
PISA
Abstract
For Australia*, Canada*, Denmark*, Hong Kong (China)*, Ireland*, Jamaica*, Latvia*, the Netherlands*, New Zealand*, Panama*, the United Kingdom* and the United States*, caution is advised when interpreting estimates because one or more PISA sampling standards were not met (see Reader’s Guide, Annexes A2 and A4).
PISA tells us how students use specific strategies for sustained lifelong learning. It also gives us information about their confidence in being able to plan and reach goals on their own. Both are key for lifelong learning. Throughout their lives, young people will need to anticipate the need to upskill, retrain or complete further education. They will need to be able to do this to respond to a world that is increasingly uncertain. It is important that while they are still in school, they develop skills and attitudes like searching for information and developing a plan that will empower them to act autonomously.
This chapter looks at how students’ approaches to learning relate to their motivation to be actors in their own future. It analyses the relationship between attitudes and dispositions towards learning, and career expectations and the ability to seek information.
More than half of 15-year-old students in OECD countries have never done an internship, visited a job fair, spoken to a career advisor, or researched information on student financing. One-fifth have never searched the Internet for information about careers. Compared to the average, more students in Denmark*, Finland, Jordan, Norway, the Palestinian Authority, Thailand and Uzbekistan seek information about the future. Students who more frequently do research on future jobs and education reported using learning strategies for sustained lifelong learning more than those who do so less frequently. They are especially more likely to adopt self-monitoring strategies and to be proactive, meticulous and motivated in their learning.
More students enrolled in vocational education and training (VET) than students enrolled in general education seek information about future opportunities. In Croatia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Mongolia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovak Republic, and Slovenia, these differences are more pronounced than in other countries/economies. More vocational students agree that school has taught them things that could be useful in a job, but fewer agree that they want to do well in mathematics compared to their peers enrolled in general education.
An average of 80% of 15-year-old students in OECD countries know what job they want to do by the time they are 30. This share is higher in Albania, Jordan, Kosovo and Uzbekistan and lower in Finland, Georgia and the Netherlands*. Students who have clear career expectations use more learning strategies than those who do not. They are more likely to adopt strategies related to problem-solving and critical thinking. They are also more likely to be motivated, especially in their learning.
PISA 2022 shows what kinds of jobs students would like to have in the future. Some 36% would like to become professionals (such as doctors, engineers, lawyers and teachers) and less than 3% would like to become managers. Students were also asked the highest level of education they expect to complete. Almost 70% reported expecting to complete tertiary education. Results also suggest that even students who have clear and ambitious plans for their future are sometimes not realistic about how to reach their goal. For example, they might expect to become a manager or professional without completing tertiary education.
In addition to the strategies for lifelong learning analysed in this volume, seeking information about future careers and education appears to be an essential skill in itself since it is related to students’ preparedness for lifelong learning. Students with defined career expectations seek more information about future opportunities than those who do not. However, interestingly, seeking information about the future is negatively related to mathematics performance in over half of PISA-participating countries and economies. This suggests that students’ academic performance is not always a good indicator of how prepared students are for lifelong learning.
Having a clear idea of what job they expect to do by age 30 can give direction to students' study pathways and keep them motivated. However, the life paths of many young people will likely change between age 15 and 30, and the jobs of today will probably be different from those 15 years into the future. It is important that students develop and practise the skills they need to seek out new information so that they can refine their future plans as needed.
PISA 2022 asked students to report whether they had undertaken a range of activities to find out about future study or types of work.1 An average of 65% of students in OECD countries have never done an internship or visited a job fair; more than 50% have never spoken to a career advisor or researched information on student financing; and 20% have never searched the Internet for information about careers or about education programmes. Students in Denmark*, Finland, Jordan, Norway, the Palestinian Authority, Thailand and Uzbekistan do more of this kind of research. Students in Belgium, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Macao (China) and Chinese Taipei do less (see Table V.B1.6.1).
Students who more frequently seek information about the future tend to do more poorly in mathematics than those who do so less frequently
Searching for information about future jobs and study is an important life skill for young people. That said, students in OECD countries who do it more frequently scored 3 points below those who do it less frequently in mathematics. In 48 countries and economies that participated in PISA, seeking information about the future is negatively related to mathematics performance even when accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile. In Greece, Israel, the Philippines, and Switzerland, students who more frequently research future opportunities performed more poorly than those who do it less frequently by a score-point difference of between 9 and 13 points. Only in Denmark*, Korea and Chinese Taipei is the relationship positive, though small (see Table V.B1.6.3). This suggests that students’ academic performance is not always a good indicator of how prepared they are for lifelong learning.
To flesh this out further, PISA 2022 data show that students in vocational education and training (VET) who typically underperform in PISA reported seeking more information about careers than their peers in general education (see Box V.6.1).
Vocational students are more oriented towards the future than general students
While vocational students tend to perform more poorly in PISA than their peers in general education (OECD, 2023[1]), they may be better prepared for lifelong learning: vocational students are more oriented towards entering the labour market and planning for the future. More vocational students know what job they want to do in the future compared to general students on average across OECD countries. This is especially true in Belgium, Chile, Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia and the Ukrainian regions (18 of 27) while more general than vocational students know what job they want to have in the future in Czechia, Guatemala, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Romania and Thailand (see Table V.B1.6.17).
More vocational students than students enrolled in general education reported seeking information about the future on average across OECD countries. They especially reported doing activities related to finding a job or learning about different professions. The latter includes doing an internship, attending a work visit, visiting a job fair, or speaking to a career advisor at school or outside of school. However, they also reported visiting schools more than general students. In Croatia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Mongolia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, the Slovak Republic, and Slovenia, these differences are more pronounced than in other countries/economies, with much higher shares of vocational students reporting to seek information. On the other hand, general students reported more often that they had completed a questionnaire to find out about their interests and abilities; searched the Internet for information about careers; and searched the Internet for information about education programmes (see Table V.B1.6.16).
Vocational students are exposed to more opportunities and have instrumental motivation
More vocational students than general students agreed that school has taught them things that could be useful in a job. This is especially true in Austria, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Korea, Poland and Chinese Taipei, where the difference between vocational and general students who think that school has taught them things that could be useful in a job is more than 10 percentage points (see Figure V.6.1). Vocational programmes are usually more oriented to preparing students for the labour market and training for a specific occupation. However, this result also suggests that students enrolled in vocational education are exposed to more opportunities and are motivated and see the value of their education in relation to their future jobs. This can be fundamental later in life, both for finding a job that they enjoy and re-entering education or training for upskilling purposes.
On the other hand, a larger share of general students than vocational students are motivated to do well in mathematics class. This difference is more pronounced in Greece, Hungary, Lithuania and Thailand, where it is more than 15 percentage points (see Figure V.6.1). Students enrolled in general education might be more motivated in mathematics than vocational students, but their focus may be more on grades rather than learning as they are generally more oriented towards entering tertiary education with the requisite grades for acceptance.
Percentage-point difference of students agreeing or strongly agreeing with the following motivations, by programme orientation
Notes: Only countries and economies with available data are shown.
Statistically significant differences are shown in a darker tone (see Annex A3).
Countries and economies are ranked in descending order of the percentage difference (students in general - vocational programmes) related to doing well in mathematics.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.6.18. See Table V.6.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
Students who more frequently seek information about future opportunities use more critical-thinking strategies and are more proactive and meticulous in their learning than those who do so less frequently
PISA 2022 shows that students who more frequently do more research about future opportunities use more learning strategies than those who do so less frequently (see Figure V.6.2). Students who seek information more frequently reported especially using strategies related to critical thinking. Approaching situations with a more flexible and open mindset might help students see how school relates to the adult world and the future. And, this may encourage them to start considering options for the future. On average across OECD countries, the difference between students who seek information more frequently and those who do so less frequently reporting that they try to consider everybody's perspective before taking a position is of almost 9 percentage points. This difference is of 15 percentage points or more in Hong Kong (China)*, Malaysia and Thailand (see Table V.B1.6.4).
Students who more frequently seek information about future study and work are also more proactive about learning and adopt more self-monitoring strategies. They are more liable to carefully check homework before turning it in, make sure there are no mistakes, and ask questions when they do not understand mathematics material being taught. Students who are more meticulous and proactive in their learning may feel more motivated to plan their lives and careers after school. The difference between students in OECD countries who seek information more frequently and those who do it less frequently on whether or not they try to connect new material to what they have learnt in previous lessons is around 8 percentage points. In Chile, Costa Rica and Jamaica* this difference is around 15 percentage points, and in 24 countries and economies this difference is not significant (see Table V.B1.6.4).
Additionally, all learning strategies are positively related to seeking future-oriented information even after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile, and students’ mathematics performance on average across OECD countries. Even if the magnitude of these associations is modest, this result suggests that students who make use of sustained lifelong learning strategies are more likely to seek information about future education and work than those who do not (see Table V.B1.6.6).
Percentage of students reporting the following learning strategies, by the bottom and top quarters of the index of information-seeking regarding future career; OECD average
1. Students doing the corresponding statement more than half of the time.
2. Students agree or strongly agree with the corresponding statement.
3. Students doing the corresponding statement more than half of the lessons.
Notes: Students reporting less frequently (more frequently) the use of learning strategies are those in the bottom (top) quarter of the index of information-seeking regarding future career in their own country/economy.
Differences between students in top and those in bottom quarters of the index of information-seeking regarding future career are all statistically significant (see Annex A3).
Items are ranked by kind of learning strategies and then in descending order of the percentage-point difference related to involvement in information-seeking regarding future career (more frequently minus less frequently students).
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.6.4. See Table V.6.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
Students who do more research about future opportunities more frequently are more motivated than those who do so less frequently (see Figure V.6.3). They are especially more motivated to learn new things in school (with a difference of 8 percentage points on average across OECD countries). This difference is equal to or bigger than 10 percentage points in 15 countries, while it is not significant in 19 countries and economies. Seeking information is a skill that requires students to know how and where to find what they need. Enjoying learning can help students feel more motivated to seek information (around 15 percentage points), and in 24 countries and economies this difference is not significant (see Figure V.6.3b [available online] and Table V.B1.6.5).
Additionally, students who do more research about future opportunities more frequently are also more likely to think that school has taught them things that can be useful in a job (with a difference of 6 percentage points on average across OECD countries). In Croatia, Iceland, and the Netherlands*, this difference is larger than in other countries and economies, reaching more than 12 percentage points. This suggests that these students are not only more likely to enjoy school but more likely to understand the relationship between school, work, and future opportunities. This awareness can be important for young people as it helps them understand the importance of studying and attending school, and it can influence their choices (see Figure V.6.3b [available online] and Table V.B1.6.5).
On average across OECD countries, all motivations are positively related to seeking information even after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile, and students’ mathematics performance, with the exception of wanting to do well in mathematics class. While these results do not imply any causal relationship and the magnitude of these associations is modest, they suggest that students who are more motivated to learn and who see the instrumental value of school also feel more motivated to seek information about future opportunities (see Table V.B1.6.7). On the contrary, students who want to do well in class might be very focused on school and are not necessarily thinking about the future.
Percentage of students agreeing or strongly agreeing with the following motivations, by the bottom and top quarters of the index of information-seeking regarding future career; OECD average
Notes: Students reporting less frequently (more frequently) the use of learning strategies are those in the bottom (top) quarter of the index of information-seeking regarding future career in their own country/economy.
Differences between students in top and those in bottom quarters of the index of information-seeking regarding future career are all statistically significant (see Annex A3).
Items are ranked in descending order of the percentage-point difference related to involvement in information-seeking regarding future career (more frequently minus less frequently students).
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.6.5. See Table V.6.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
Thinking and planning for the future is a fundamental skill for lifelong learning. It helps young people adjust to the changing labour market and develop new skills. This is crucial for transitioning from school to work and reskilling, upskilling and switching jobs in the future.
PISA asked students about the job they expect to do when they are about 30 years old. Some 80% of students in OECD countries responded with a job that they would expect to have2. In Albania, Jordan, Kosovo and Uzbekistan, more than 95% of students were able to identify what job they expect to have. In Finland, Georgia and the Netherlands*, less than 70% were able to respond (see Table V.B1.6.8).
There is no clear relationship between defined job expectations and mathematics performance
The relationship between having a defined job expectation and mathematics performance is unclear, especially when accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile. While in 7 countries, students who know what job they want to do when they are 30 performed worse, in 18 countries and economies they performed better. In some of the countries with the largest negative associations, such as Belgium and Slovenia, having defined job expectations is associated with a decrease of 16 and 10 score points, respectively, in mathematics performance. In education systems where this association is positive, such as in Cambodia, Korea, Macao (China), Malaysia, the Philippines, Uzbekistan, and Viet Nam, students with defined career expectations scored between 16 and 24 points more in mathematics than those without (see Table V.B1.6.10).
Students who know what job they want to do are more likely to adopt self-monitoring strategies and to be encouraged to use problem-solving strategies
Students who know what job they want to do in the future are more likely to adopt learning strategies even after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile, and students’ mathematics performance (see Figure V.6.4). Students with clear career expectations are more likely to adopt self-monitoring strategies such as making sure there are no mistakes in their work and carefully checking homework. In Mexico, Moldova, North Macedonia and the Philippines, the likelihood of students having a clear idea about a future job when adopting these self-monitoring strategies is higher compared to other countries and economies while in 25 countries this likelihood is not observed. Having a more flexible and open way of thinking and enjoying problem-solving can encourage students to think about how school relates to the outside world and their future plans (see Table V.B1.6.13).
Students with clear career expectations are also more likely to be encouraged by teachers to use strategies related to problem-solving, such as thinking about new ways to solve problems. In some countries and economies, the likelihood of students having a clear idea about a future job when the activities in class help them think about new ways to solve problems is higher, especially in Malaysia and the Philippines, while in 33 countries/economies this result is not found (see Table V.B1.6.13).
Likelihood of knowing what job one wants to do in the future when students reported the following learning strategies; OECD average
1. The socio-economic profile is measured by the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS).
2. Students doing the corresponding statement more than half of the time.
3. Students agree or strongly agree with the corresponding statement.
4. Students doing the corresponding statement more than half of the lessons.
Note: All coefficients are statistically significant (see Annex A3).
Items are ranked by kind of learning strategies and then in descending order of the odds ratio, after accounting for students' and schools' socio-economic profile and performance in mathematics.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.6.13. See Table V.6.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
Students who know what job they want to do are more likely to feel motivated than those who do not
Students who know what job they would like to have in the future are more likely to be intrinsically and instrumentally motivated (see Figure V.6.5). They are especially more likely to enjoy schoolwork that is challenging and to learn new things. These motivations can encourage students to think about the future and how they will be able to apply what they have learnt to new challenging situations. In Malaysia, Malta, North Macedonia and the Philippines, the likelihood of students having a clear idea about future jobs when reporting loving learning new things is higher than in other countries. In 31 countries and economies, this likelihood is not observed (see Table V.B1.6.14).
Students who know what job they want are also more likely to want to do well in class and think that school has taught them things that could be useful for a job. These associations are found even when accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile, and students’ mathematics performance. Students who see the link between school and the world of work, and between their grades and consequences for their future can probably better project themselves into the future and are more likely to ask themselves what job they would like to do when they are adults. In the Dominican Republic, Malaysia and the Ukrainian regions (18 of 27), the likelihood of students having a clear idea about future jobs when reporting that school has taught them things that could be useful for a job is higher than in other countries and economies (see Table V.B1.6.14).
Likelihood of knowing what job one wants to do in the future when students agree or strongly agree with the following motivations; OECD average
1. The socio-economic profile is measured by the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS).
Note: All coefficients are statistically significant (see Annex A3).
Items are ranked in descending order of the odds ratio, after accounting for students' and schools' socio-economic profile and performance in mathematics.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.6.14. See Table V.6.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
PISA 2022 data tell us what kind of job 15-year-old students would like to have when they are 30 years old. Less than 3% of students reported that they would like to become a manager on average across OECD countries. Some 36% reported they would like to become professionals (such as doctors, engineers, lawyers and teachers). In Indonesia, Kazakhstan and Viet Nam, 10% or more of students would like to become a manager while in Baku (Azerbaijan), Czechia, the Dominican Republic and Peru less than 1% reported so (see Table V.B1.6.23). In Costa Rica, Ireland*, Macao (China), Singapore and Türkiye, more than 50% of students would like to become a professional while in Baku (Azerbaijan), Belgium, Czechia, the Dominican Republic, Finland, Germany, Georgia and Panama* less than 25% reported so (see Table V.B1.6.24). Being ambitious and setting high goals can help students feel more motivated in their studies. At the same time, their expectations may be influenced by many factors.
More skilled performers than low performers expect to do highly-paid jobs
There is no clear association between mathematics performance and knowing what job students want to do in the future (see Table V.B1.6.10). However, a difference emerges in terms of the type of job students want to do based on their performance. More skilled performers than low performers want to become managers or professionals. On average across OECD countries, 48% of skilled performers and 25% of low performers want to become a manager or professional. The Philippines presents the widest gap, with 79% of skilled performers and 32% of low performers wanting to become managers or professionals. Costa Rica presents the smallest gap, with 63% of skilled performers and 55% of low performers reporting so (see Table V.B1.6.28).
Having ambitious plans can be motivating for students but it is also important that they are realistic. Failure to reach set goals can be detrimental for self-esteem, work motivation and adult learning. Managerial and professional occupations generally require a solid foundation and skills. They also require young people to successfully complete tertiary education. In Costa Rica, Kazakhstan and Mexico, more than 50% of students who are low performers reported wanting to be a manager or professional (see Table V.B1.6.28). This result suggests that students in these countries need additional support and information about the steps and skills required to reach their goals.
Students’ characteristics could influence their aspirations and ambitions for the future
While, on average, slightly more girls than boys are able to report what job they want to do in the future, slightly more boys than girls reported that they expect to become managers (see Tables V.B1.6.9 and V.B1.6.23). This could be due to gender stereotypes that discourage girls from considering more leadership positions and a lack of women in leadership positions as role models. Across OECD countries this difference is very modest (around 1 percentage point) but it is slightly more prominent (around 5 percentage points) in Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Romania and Uzbekistan. In Mongolia and the Philippines, the gap is reversed, with slightly more girls than boys expecting to become managers (with a difference of around 1 to 2 percentage points) (see Table V.B1.6.23).
On the other hand, more girls than boys want to become professionals in all countries and economies. This difference is 14 percentage points on average across OECD countries but more pronounced – with a more than 25 percentage-point difference – in Albania, Jordan, Kosovo, Montenegro, the Palestinian Authority, Saudi Arabia and Türkiye. In Belgium and Peru, this difference is less than 5 percentage points (see Table V.B1.6.24).
Managers and professionals tend to be highly paid and 38% of students overall across OECD countries would like to become either (see Table V.B1.6.25). In terms of socio-economic status differences, though similar shares of advantaged and disadvantaged students were able to report what job they want to do in the future (see Table V.B1.6.9), more advantaged than disadvantaged students want to become managers or professionals. In some countries, this gap is less pronounced, especially in Baku (Azerbaijan), Belgium, Cambodia, the Philippines and Saudi Arabia, where the gap is less than 10 percentage points. In Hungary, Moldova, Peru, the Slovak Republic and Romania, the gap exceeds 30 percentage points (see Figure V.6.6). To ensure equality, it is important that all students can plan according to their preferences, skills and ambitions regardless of their socio-economic status.
Percentage of students expecting to work as manager or professional, by students' socio-economic status
1. A socio-economically disadvantaged (advantaged) student is a student in the bottom (top) quarter of the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS) in his or her own country/economy.
2. Data of Belgium represent only the French-speaking and German-speaking Communities.
Notes: Only countries and economies with available data are shown.
Statistically significant differences are shown in a darker tone (see Annex A3).
Countries and economies are ranked in descending order of the percentage-point difference related to students' socio-economic status (advantaged - disadvantaged students).
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.6.25. See Table V.6.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
In many countries and economies, career exploration is considered a transversal skill that young people should develop in school. In some countries, it is included in the curriculum as a compulsory activity (OECD, 2023[2]). In addition to the strategies for lifelong learning that are analysed in this volume, seeking information about future careers and education is an essential skill in itself as it empowers students for lifelong learning.
Students with defined career expectations seek more information about future opportunities than those without
Students in OECD countries who have clear career expectations participate more often in activities about future study or career options than those who do not (see Figure V.6.7). They especially research the Internet for information about educational programmes and careers. Research helps define future plans and having plans encourages research, creating a virtuous circle. In some countries and economies, these differences are more pronounced. For example, in Belgium and Ireland*, the difference between students who have clear career expectations and those who do not in looking for information about educational programmes on the Internet is more than 20 percentage points. This is around twice the average across OECD countries (see Figure V.6.7b [available online] and Table V.B1.6.15).
Students who know what job they would like to have in the future also seek more information on student financing such as loans and grants. Searching for financial opportunities is key for students, especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds, as it allows them to achieve their goals. It is important that students learn to make realistic plans and understand the steps required to get where they want (see Box V.6.3). New Zealand* presents the widest gap between students who have clear career expectations and those who do not in terms of looking for information on student financing. The 18 percentage-point gap is double the OECD average (see Figure V.6.7b [available online] and Table V.B1.6.15).
Percentage of students reporting the following statements across students who know or don't know what job they want to do in the future; OECD average
Note: Differences between students who know what job they want to do in the future and those who don't know are all statistically significant (see Annex A3).
Items are ranked in descending order of the percentage-point difference between students who know what job they want to do in the future and those who don't know.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.6.15. See Table V.6.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
PISA 2022 asked students about the level of education they expect to complete in the future. Almost 70% expect to complete at least ISCED 5 (see Table V.B1.6.20) on average across OECD countries. Being motivated to pursue further education can influence students’ academic achievements and behaviour in school as they have a clear project and goal. To take control of their future learning, students need to be aware of their learning options and pathways to be able to make informed decisions about how to reach their goals.
In countries that have historically low levels of attainment in tertiary education, such as Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, Peru and Türkiye – more than 85% of students reported expecting to complete tertiary education. On the contrary, in Brunei Darussalam, Denmark*, Finland, Germany, New Zealand*, the Philippines and Poland, 60% or less expect to complete tertiary education (see Table V.B1.6.20).
Students’ socio-economic status is related to their expectations about going on to tertiary education
Some 83% of advantaged students expect to complete tertiary education compared to 53% of disadvantaged students on average across OECD countries. Students with disadvantaged socio-economic status may feel less encouraged or supported by teachers or their parents to enrol in tertiary education, and less confident and optimistic about the future. Perhaps the cost of tertiary education is too much of a burden or they need to enter the workforce and start earning sooner. In some countries/economies, the difference between advantaged and disadvantaged students expecting to complete tertiary education is more pronounced, such as in Czechia, Hungary, Korea, Lithuania, Moldova and Poland, where it exceeds 40 percentage points. On the contrary, in Chile, the Dominican Republic, Singapore and Uzbekistan, this difference is less than 10 percentage points (see Table V.B1.6.20).
There is a positive association between performance in mathematics and expecting to complete tertiary education, on average across OECD countries. This suggests that students who perform well in mathematics are more motivated to attend tertiary education as they are more confident they will succeed. It also suggests that students who want to attend tertiary education feel more motivated in school and perform better in mathematics. This association drastically changes when considering students’ socio-economic status. Before accounting for socio-economic profile, the change in performance associated with expecting to complete tertiary education is of 44 score points but after accounting for socio-economic status the change is of 21 (see Table V.B1.6.21). This confirms that disadvantaged students are less likely to expect to go on to tertiary education despite their performance (see Table V.B1.6.22).
Students’ educational expectations are not always aligned with their career expectations
While having clear career expectations can be motivating for students and signal their willingness to plan for the future, it is important that these expectations are aligned with their plans to pursue education and that their goals are realistic.
Figure V.6.8 shows that, on average across OECD countries, 18% of students do not expect to complete at least ISCED 5 but would like to become a manager or professional. This suggests that even if students have clear and ambitious plans for their future, some do not have a realistic idea of the steps required to reach their goal. In some countries, such as Brunei Darussalam, El Salvador, Germany, the Philippines and Poland, this result is even more worrying, with more than 30% of students who would like to become a manager or professional reporting that they do not expect to complete tertiary education. In Chile, Costa Rica and Peru, this share is lower, at below 6%. It is important to provide all students with career guidance and accurate information on possible pathways and requirements to access and complete them (see Box V.6.4).
Percentage of students reporting they don't expect to complete higher education when they plan to work as manager or professional
1. Data of Belgium represent only the French-speaking and German-speaking Communities.
Note: Only countries and economies with available data are shown.
Countries and economies are ranked in descending order of the percentage of students who don't expect to complete higher education amongst those who plan to work as manager or professional.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table V.B1.6.20. See Table V.6.1 for StatLink at the end of this chapter.
Germany offers different mentoring programmes to connect university students with school students in the last two years of lower secondary education. The goal is to help young people successfully transition into adult and professional life, focussing especially on disadvantaged students. These programmes provide career guidance, and foster self-esteem and trust in the mentees’ skills and abilities.
Mentoring programmes usually follow these steps:
Volunteer university students visit participating schools in their city to introduce the programme. Interested secondary students receive information material and consent forms to be signed by parents with which they apply to the programme.
During kick-off training, participating students meet the mentors in a round of introductions. Mentees are matched to mentors based on mutual preferences immediately after introductions.
After the match, pairs are expected to meet every two weeks for one to two years. While mentoring activities include going to the cinema or the zoo, mentors are also expected to support students in dealing with stressful situations at school and at home; provide occupational orientation; and assist in job-application processes.
“Arbeiterkind” (“Blue-collar-child”) is a mentoring programme for students from blue-collar families. Founded in 2008 it supports students who are the first in their families to attend tertiary education. Some 6 000 volunteers in 80 local groups provide easy-access help for prospective and current university students (e.g. by providing information about scholarships). The goal is to equip students who are the first of their families to go to university with the implicit knowledge that students from more advantaged households already have. In 2022 alone, the programme involved 23 000 students.
Another example of a mentoring programme is “Rock Your Life!”, which was founded by a group of university students in Germany in 2008. It is offered in 42 cities across Germany and has established more than 7 000 mentoring relationships since its launch.
A study conducted with 308 students from 10 German cities that participated in the “Rock Your Life!” mentoring programme between 2015 and 2018 found that mentored students benefited substantially from their mentoring relationship. It improved mentees’ attainment in mathematics and non-cognitive social skills, and helped them develop clearer occupational plans. Students were much more likely to transition successfully into apprenticeships, leading to well-paying skilled employment. Through engagement with university students, mentees gained access to new sources of trusted information that encouraged them to think more pragmatically about their options for post-secondary education and training, and future employment.
Source: Arbeiterkind, (2024[3]) , redakteur | ArbeiterKind.de; Federal Ministry of Education and Research of Germany (2022[4]), Arbeiter Kind, arbeiterkind.de_jahresbericht_2022.pdf ; OECD (Forthcoming[5]), OECD Youth Policy Toolkit; Resnjanskij, S., Ruhose, J., Wiederhold, S., Woessmann, L., & Wedel, K. (2024[6]), Can mentoring alleviate family disadvantage in adolescence? A field experiment to improve labor market prospects. Journal of Political Economy, 132(3), 1013-1062. https://doi.org/10.1086/726905.
References
[3] Arbeiterkind (2024), Arbeiterkind, https://www.arbeiterkind.de/.
[4] Federal Ministry of Education and Research of Germany (2022), Arbeiter kind, https://www.arbeiterkind.de/sites/default/files/arbeiterkind.de_jahresbericht_2022.pdf.
[2] OECD (2023), Assessing, documenting, and recognising social and emotional skills in upper secondary education: An overview of practices, approaches, models, and strategies from OECD countries, OECD Publishing, https://doi.org/10.1787/69c7abe6-en.
[1] OECD (2023), PISA 2022 Results (Volume II): Learning During – and From – Disruption, https://doi.org/10.1787/a97db61c-en.
[5] OECD (Forthcoming), OECD Youth Policy Toolkit.
[6] Resnjanskij, S. et al. (2024), “Can Mentoring Alleviate Family Disadvantage in Adolescence? A Field Experiment to Improve Labor Market Prospects”, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 132/3, pp. 1013-1062, https://doi.org/10.1086/726905.
← 1. These questions were scaled to construct the index of information-seeking regarding future career.
← 2. Students who had a clear idea about their future job index was based on the human-coded open-ended expected occupation index. Students who had no clear idea about their future jobs were considered those who indicated “I do not know” or gave a vague answer such as “a good job”, “a quiet job”, “a well-paid job”, “an office job”.