Africa's Development Dynamics 2024

Chapter 6. Skills for renewable energies in North Africa

Abstract

This chapter examines the skills needed to support the development of the renewable energy sector in the six North African countries: Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia. It provides an overview of current levels of education, employment and skills development in the region, followed by a case study on the skills required in the renewable energy sector. North Africa is well-equipped to take advantage of the many resources available to the region (solar, wind and hydroelectric power) to achieve a just energy transition. This chapter assesses the skill sets of workers in different segments of renewables value chains, and then analyses how the skill demand is evolving. Finally, it proposes a range of public policies to ensure the skill supply better aligns with the skill demand in the renewable energy and related sectors.

In Brief

The quality of education in North Africa has improved significantly. Now the challenge is to maintain this progress for all: while the average years of schooling is 7.9 years – higher than the average for the continent (6.7 years) – once this figure is adjusted for learning quality, the average drops to 6.1 years. There are still a number of inequalities, not only between urban and rural areas, but also between genders. Although the region has the highest productivity on the continent (around USD 42 000 per worker), almost 73% of workers are in informal employment.

Renewable energy has the potential to create 2.7 million jobs in North Africa, given that the region boasts the continent’s greatest potential for solar and wind power, and could become the leading exporter of green hydrogen by 2050, with a projected annual value of USD 110 billion.

However, the growing demand for skills is not being met. This mismatch between supply and demand is caused by a number of factors, including the narrow scope of national skills development strategies, the lack of funding for relevant training, and poor transparency in the dissemination of information, and the mismatch between the skills available and the needs of the labour market.

To develop skills in the renewable energies sector, policymakers could therefore consider three priority measures:

1. Developing and implementing participatory and inclusive national strategies that anticipate the growing demand for skills and that align training with the needs of the market, following a people-centred, gender-sensitive, and focused on sustainable local development approach.

2. Expanding the range of skills available by investing more effectively in research and development and centres of excellence, and by strengthening vocational and technical training, internships and work-study programmes.

3. Setting up an institutional framework supported by competent and well-resourced authorities for the good governance of public-private, regional and international partnerships.

Skills for renewable energies in North Africa (infographic)

North Africa regional profile

Figure 6.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending in North Africa, 2000-22

Note: Vulnerable employment includes formal and informal self-employed workers and family workers, but excludes informal employees. As a proxy for informal employment, it is used here to show long-term trends, as time series on informal employment are not available for most African countries. Labour productivity is measured as gross domestic product (GDP) in constant 2017 international dollars at purchasing power parity (PPP) prices, divided by the population of employed people in thousands.

Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023_[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/; World Bank (2023_[2]), World Development Indicators (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators; and IMF (2023_[3]), World Economic Outlook (database), https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO.

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Figure 6.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation in North Africa, 2021

Note: “Technicians” include associate professionals; “Skilled elementary occupations” include skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers, and elementary occupations; and “Operators and assemblers” include plant and machine operators and assemblers.

Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023_[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/.

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North Africa must continue its efforts to deliver high-quality skills for all

The level and quality of education in North Africa are higher than in other parts of the continent, but inequalities persist. The average years of schooling across the region is 7.9 years; this is higher than for the rest of the continent, where this figure stands at around 6.7 years. However, when average years of schooling is adjusted to account for the quality of learning, this average falls to 6.1 years in North Africa, compared with 5.1 years for the continent as a whole. This figure ranges from 7.1 years in Algeria to 4.2 years in Mauritania (Figure 6.3).

Differences between genders and between rural and urban areas widen gaps in basic skills. Girls are generally more proficient in reading than in mathematics, but they have higher results than boys in both skills. As regards the skill gap between urban and rural areas, children living in urban areas are generally more proficient in reading and mathematics than those living in rural areas (Figure 6.4). Despite these figures, women remain under-represented in the labour market. This is at the heart of a regional paradox: better access to education does not guarantee better integration into the workforce. Libya, Tunisia and Mauritania follow this trend, with female labour force participation rates (as a percentage of the female population aged 15 and over) reaching 35%, 27%, and 26% respectively in 2023. These rates sit below the global average (49%). In other North African countries, such as Morocco, Algeria and Egypt, labour force participation among women is even lower (20%, 16% and 15% respectively) (World Bank, 2023_[4]). These figures underscore the role that structural barriers play in women’s employment, including social norms (OECD, 2023_[5]). Greater labour market participation by women would accelerate development (OECD, 2024_[6]).

Figure 6.3. Average years of schooling and learning-adjusted years of schooling in North Africa, 2020

Note: “Learning-adjusted average years of schooling” combines both the quantity and quality of education into a single measure, accounting for the fact that similar lengths of schooling may produce different learning outcomes. See Filmer et al. (2020_[7]) for a detailed methodology.

Source: Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2023_[8]), Education Statistics (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/education-statistics-%5E-all-indicators.

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Figure 6.4. Percentage of adolescents in upper secondary school achieving proficiency in reading and mathematics in North Africa, most recent year observed (2013-22)

Source: Authors’ calculations based on UNESCO (2023_[9]), World Inequality Database on Education (database), https://www.education-inequalities.org/.

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North Africa has a diversified economy and high levels of productivity, but informality remains widespread.

• Most of the working population is employed in agriculture, construction, retail and wholesale, often in the informal sector. Agriculture, forestry and fishing accounted for around a quarter of employment in 2021, with their share having shrunk since the early 2000s (31%).

• The construction and retail/wholesale sectors have been growing steadily since 2000, employing 14% and 17% of the active population respectively in 2021, compared with 8% and 13% in 2000.

• Compared with other African regions, North Africa has the highest share of the population working in the manufacturing sector. By 2021, 12% of the population worked in this sector, compared with a continental average of 7%.

Most employees working in these sectors are semi-skilled (Figure 6.5). In 2021, 31% of workers were in vulnerable employment (self-employed or unpaid family workers), the lowest share of any African region. Labour productivity remains high, reaching around USD 42 000 per worker in 2022 despite the predominance of informality in the region, with almost 73% of workers employed in the informal sector. This figure exceeds the average for the rest of the continent (USD 16 000 per worker).

Figure 6.5. Number of workers by skill level and occupation, latest year available

Note: Skill level is defined based on the complexity and range of tasks and functions that fall within the remit of an occupation. Skill level 1 (low) covers basic occupations. Skill level 2 (medium) covers plant and machine operators, fitters, craftspeople and related trades, skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers, service and sales workers and office workers. Skill levels 3 and 4 (high) cover technicians and associate professions, liberal professionals and managers. Figures for North Africa cover Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia.

Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023_[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database)https://ilostat.ilo.org/.

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Despite the dominance of unskilled jobs, many workers do not have the required level of education for their occupation. In Tunisia and Egypt, 33% and 55% of the working population respectively are employed in jobs for which they are underqualified (Figure 6.6). This situation is more common among self-employed workers. Only a small proportion (around 12%) of salaried workers have a higher level of education than required for their occupation, consistent with findings from other surveys: in Egypt, for example, 37% of young people do not have the required level of education for their current occupation (Morsy and Mukasa, 2019_[10]).

Figure 6.6. Percentage of workers who have a higher or lower level of education than required for their occupation in North Africa, 2022 or latest year available

Note: Mismatches are assessed using the normative approach, by comparing the educational requirements for each occupational group set out in the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) with the educational level of each person with that occupation. Calculations are based on data available from national labour force statistics or other representative household surveys with an employment component.

Source: Authors’ compilation based on ILOSTAT (2023_[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates, (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/.

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Green skills are uniquely valuable in efforts to adapt to climate change in North African countries. Climate change is having a major socio-economic impact on this region, reducing per-capita GDP growth by 5% to 15% each year (AUC/OECD, 2022_[11]). The North Africa region is the most exposed on the continent to the risks associated with rising temperatures, such as droughts, water stress and fires. Despite the severity of its impacts, only 36% of people surveyed in Morocco, Mauritania and Tunisia had heard of climate change. Only 22% of people with no education and 28% of rural residents had heard of climate change, compared with 41% of urban residents (Afrobarometer, 2023_[12]).

Migration in North Africa is characterised by flows of low- and semi-skilled workers into and out of the region, and to a lesser extent by the emigration of skilled workers to countries outside the continent. Low- or semi-skilled people – with secondary or lower education – mainly immigrate from the rest of the African continent. Libya is notable for its high levels of immigration from outside the continent. North Africa is also characterised by high levels of emigration to countries outside the continent. Skilled workers (with tertiary or higher levels of education) – particularly those from Morocco and Tunisia – mainly migrate to destinations outside the continent (Figure 6.7).

Figure 6.7. Migrants by level of education, origin and destination (North Africa, 2020)

Note: Migrants per 1 000 inhabitants. Negative numbers represent emigration. “Low-educated” refers to individuals with secondary or lower education. “High-educated” refers to those with tertiary or higher education.

Source: World Bank (2023_[2]), Global Bilateral Migration (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/global-bilateral-migration.

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The renewable energies sector presents a new opportunity to develop skills and productive employment in North Africa

Renewable-energy-related skills could be a source of new productive employment and support the response to climate change

North Africa has immense potential to develop renewable energies (particularly solar panels, wind power and hydroelectricity) while responding to increasingly pressing climate risks. The region has the greatest solar and wind energy potential on the continent. The average annual solar radiation is around 2 200 kWh/m² and the average wind speed is 7 metres per second (9.5 m/s in Algeria) (El-Katiri, 2023_[13]). Using 1% of land for solar and wind power would increase energy capacity to 2 792 GW for solar and 223 GW for wind: 12 times Africa’s current capacity. By 2050, North Africa is set to become the world’s leading exporter of green hydrogen, with a projected export value of USD 110 billion per year (Deloitte, 2023_[14]). The ever-decreasing cost of renewable energy generation, particularly solar and wind power, is giving the sector a major boost (AUC/OECD, 2022_[11]). Realising this potential is all the more urgent given the region’s growing exposure to climate hazards.1 Desertification is increasing and temperatures are rising, threatening fragile ecosystems and essential natural resources and leading to significant socio-economic impacts, including lower agricultural yields and growing water scarcity.

The energy transition could drive economic growth and productive job creation on a continental scale. North Africa’s generation capacity has increased by 6% per year since 2011. Over the past decade, renewable electricity generation is estimated to have risen by over 40%, thanks to the rapid expansion of wind, photovoltaic solar and solar thermal power. However, the share of renewable energy in the electricity mix (9.5% of electricity generated) remains lower than in the rest of Africa (21%, of which 17% is hydropower). That the sector has significant room to grow is also demonstrated by the low share of renewable energies (only 4.6%) in the region’s energy mix (IEA, 2020_[15]). Algeria relies on fossil fuels to generate more than 95% of its electricity (ILO, 2018_[16]) and Egypt 90% (IEA, 2024_[17]; Ambassade de France en République arabe d’Égypte, 2022_[18]). According to projections, sufficient investment in renewable energy to limit global warming to 1.5°C would increase GDP by an average of 5% and employment by an average of 2% compared with business-as-usual over 2021-2050 (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1. Socio-economic effects of the energy transition (under the “1.5°C scenario” compared with the “business-as-usual scenario”)

	GDP (percentage difference)	Well-being (percentage difference in indices)					Employment (percentage difference, average 2021-2050)
		Environmental	Economic	Social	Distribution	Access to energy
North Africa	5%	27%	2%	43%	8%	0%	2%
West Africa	15%	40%	1.5%	25%	10%	39%	1%
East Africa	10%	42%	6.5%	3.5%	10.5%	38%	4%
Central Africa	15.5%	46%	7.5%	73%	14%	41%	6.5%
Southern Africa	10%	35%	4%	47%	119%	18%	4%
Africa	6.5%	37.5%	4%	32%	22%	30%	3.5%

Note: The average differences are expressed as a percentage of GDP, well-being and employment and are calculated by comparing the 1.5°C global warming scenario against the business-as-usual scenario over the 2021-2050 projection period. They show that despite a positive effect overall at the continental level, there would be significant differences between regions.

Source: IRENA/AfDB (2022_[19]), Renewable Energy Market Analysis, https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2022/Jan/IRENA_Market_Africa_2022.pdf?rev=bb73e285a0974bc996a1f942635ca556.

International and national commitments to the energy transition are helping to grow the renewable energy sector. Global greenhouse gas emissions must be cut by 43% by 2030, compared with 2019 levels, to limit global warming to 1.5°C. At the 28^th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 28), governments were called on to triple global renewable energy capacity and double their energy efficiency efforts by 2030. Most North African countries were active in the adoption of the aforementioned commitments, in particular Egypt and Morocco (which respectively hosted COP 27 in Sharm el-Sheikh in 2022 and COP 22 in Marrakech in 2016). At future COPs, governments will have to set new climate financing targets through the publication of new Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). Libya is the only country in the region that has signed but not ratified the Paris Agreement 2 and therefore does not publish an NDC.

Demand for renewable-energy-related skills is increasing, although it does vary depending on the value chain segment and type of company

The maturity of the renewable energy sector varies between countries in North Africa. By 2022, the sector employed at least 21 000 people in the region. Morocco accounts for the majority of jobs in the sector (59%), followed by Egypt (18%), Algeria (12%), Tunisia (9%) and Libya (2%) (Figure 6.8). Egypt, Morocco and Algeria have contributed to the expansion of solar energy in the region, ranking second, third and fourth for solar power generation on the continent. Egypt and Morocco are also leading in African wind power generation, ranking just behind South Africa (IRENA, 2023_[20]). In oil and gas exporting countries such as Algeria and Libya, the renewable energy sector is still expected to grow alongside the dominant fossil fuels. These countries will therefore be able to draw on the transferability of certain skills from one sector to the other, in order to develop other lines of business in the renewable sector and compensate for any jobs lost in the fossil fuel sector (Table 6.2). This energy transition should also create jobs, particularly in the green infrastructure construction phase (AUC/OECD, 2022_[11]).

Figure 6.8. Total employment in renewables sector, latest available data

Note: CSP = Concentrated solar power. The data are mainly for 2022, followed by 2021, with a few cases for which only earlier data are available. “Other” refers in particular to jobs not broken down by individual renewable energy technology.

Source: IRENA/ILO (2023_[21]), Renewable energy and jobs: Annual review 2023, https://www.irena.org/Publications/2023/Sep/Renewable-energy-and-jobs-Annual-review-2023.

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Table 6.2. Renewable energy skills development priorities by North African country profile

Group	Countries	Priorities for renewable energy skills development
Net energy importers Strong incentive to develop renewable energies	Morocco, Egypt, Tunisia	Development of expertise to meet national or NDC objectives
Net energy exporters Weak incentive to develop renewable energies	Algeria, Libya, Mauritania1	Transferring and strengthening existing expertise in fossil fuels to renewable energies Development of mini-grid related skills (to complement national hydrocarbon-dependent grids)

1. Although Mauritania is aiming to become one of the world’s largest exporters of renewable hydrogen, at the time of publication of this report there was no clear strategy in place to achieve this objective.

Source: Authors’ compilation. NDC = Nationally determined contributions.

Current projections are based on a growing demand for skilled workers in the renewable energy sector. Various climate scenarios forecast growth in employment in the sector. Comparing the 1.5°C global temperature increase scenario with the business-as-usual scenario, North Africa could create at least 2.7 million additional jobs in the renewable energy sector (IRENA/AfDB, 2022_[19]). However, the Stated Policies Scenario currently projects a significantly lower figure, estimated at 30 000 (IEA, unpublished).3 Nevertheless, effective national strategies could increase renewable energy generation and create thousands of jobs (67 000 in Egypt and 25 000 in Morocco over the 2020-2050 period, and 70 000 in Tunisia by 2035) (World Bank/ESMAP, 2024_[22]; AUC/OECD, 2023_[23]; AUC/OECD, 2022_[11]; World Bank, 2022_[24]; World Bank, 2022_[25]). International co-operation and co-operation with the private sector will therefore be crucial for sustaining the momentum of current policies and achieving more ambitious targets.

The potential for job creation in the renewable energy sector varies depending on the segment of the value chain in question. The value chain can be broken down into several segments: research and development (R&D), surveys and project design, component manufacturing and assembly, installation, construction and commissioning, operation and maintenance, and disassembly and recycling (AfDB, 2016_[26]) (Box 6.1). Upstream, it is important to strengthen skills in R&D, component manufacturing, technology development, prototype testing and innovation. This requires design, engineering, production, quality control and logistics skills. Downstream, the skills needed to operate and maintain systems are essential. It is also vitally important to strengthen recycling-related skills to ensure components are properly managed at the end of their useful life. Finally, there is a growing need for technical skills in areas such as renewable energy engineering and storage technologies, as well as management skills including project management, data analysis, regulations, communication and financing (Table 6.3).

Table 6.3. Skills breakdown by renewable energy value chain segment

Value chain segment	Basic skills	Intermediate skills	Advanced skills
Project development	Basic skills, management, communication	Project development/facilitation	Designing engineering projects, architecture for small projects, atmospheric sciences, resource assessment, ecology, precedents for public funding, land valuation, land negotiation, lobbying, mediation, specialised procurement, specialised resource assessment
Manufacturing and distribution	Manufacturing, logistics, equipment transport	Computer software, industrial engineering, technical manufacturing, logistics, manufacturing-related quality assurance	Engineering research and development, manufacturing-related engineering, prototype modelling and testing, specialised procurement, specialised marketing, specialised sales
Construction and installation	General construction	Qualification in construction, transport, logistics, storage	Civil, mechanical and electrical engineering, construction project management, business development, commissioning-related engineering
Operation and maintenance	Basic skills, management, communication	Welding, pipework, plumbing, mechanisation, electricity, construction equipment operation, heating, ventilation and air conditioning	Plant management, measurement and control engineering
Cross-functional activities/facilitation activities	Associative management, leadership, administration, customer relations	Public policy, insurance, information technology, health and safety, sales and marketing	Education and training, specialised finance, scientific writing and publishing

Source: Authors’ compilation based on World Bank/ESMAP (2024_[27]), Job Creation and Skills Development During the Energy Transition – Egypt, https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099012324070535949/pdf/P17054613550c90311bcca14bbb87596a7a.pdf.

Box 6.1. Specific skills required for the development of renewable energy value chains

As part of its national strategy to meet its electricity needs while reducing its dependence on fossil fuels, Morocco plans to increase its renewable energy generation. The Tan Tan solar power plant project, set up to this end, will employ between 20 and 150 people per site, depending on the pace of installation and nature of the work.

• The component construction phase of the project (solar power plant, power lines, access roads), lasting 12 to 16 months, will require a range of technical skills, including civil engineering, electrical engineering, logistics and transport, and knowledge of how to operate site machinery.

• The operating phase will require only a limited number of operational staff (around 15 to 20 people per site), mainly for maintenance, servicing and security.

Source: Masen (2023_[28]), Étude d’impact environnemental et social du projet solaire photovoltaïque de Noor Atlas : Plan de Gestion Environnementale et Sociale, https://www.masen.ma/sites/default/files/documents_rapport/Masen_Programme%20Noor%20Atlas_Projet%20Noor%20TanTan_PGES_V.f%C3%A9vrier%202023.pdf.

Large companies mainly look for people with technical skills, while small businesses and start-ups also need people with skills related to innovation, digital technology and sustainable financing. The survey4 conducted in preparation for this chapter found that the specific skills required by multinationals pursuing renewable energies include energy auditing, project management, electrical engineering and electronics, energy storage, environmental assessment, standards and regulations, sustainable development communication and training. Small businesses and start-ups require soft skills related to innovation, project management, digital technologies and sustainable development, as well as skills related to green finance, seeking financing and conducting a financial analysis of clean energy. They also value skills related to strategic partnerships and networking to facilitate collaboration with local governments and financial institutions.

The range of training courses on renewable energies has expanded in recent years, but not enough to meet the growing demand for skills

The availability of training on renewable energies at universities and technical institutions varies between North African countries. A comparative analysis of degree-level courses found differences between countries in terms of course and specialisation supply. Bachelor’s and master’s degrees in renewable energies are available in most countries, but doctorates and technical and vocational education and training (TVET) are emerging more slowly, often with the support of international partners (Table 6.4).

Table 6.4. Degree-level courses on renewable energies in North Africa

Country	TVET	Bachelor	Master	Doctorate
Algeria		×	×	×
Egypt	×	×	×
Libya			×
Morocco	×	×	×	×
Mauritania		×	×
Tunisia	×	×	×	×

Note: This table excludes short courses and projects aimed at improving skills in the renewable energy sector in the region.

Source: Authors’ compilation.

Training provision suffers from a shortage of experienced trainers to the detriment of the quality of teaching and learning. Teachers and trainers teaching technical subjects in the region are often self-trained. This lack of teacher training negatively impacts the quality of the training and the knowledge passed on to graduates. Co-ordination between the various actors involved in training also needs to be improved.

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) have fewer resources to deliver in-house training programmes, which would help bring their employees’ technical knowledge into line with their specific needs. Our survey found that SME owners do not have the necessary resources for in-house training. Formal education, especially at master’s level (five years of higher education), is criticised for being too theoretical and failing to meet the practical needs of the labour market in terms of intermediate skills (Table 6.3). Conversely, learners on TVET, diploma (two years of higher education) or multi-stakeholder training programmes benefit from better practical knowledge (Box 6.2), while start-ups often try to attract foreign talent to fill skills gaps.

Box 6.2. The Kaizen approach to skills development

In North Africa, SMEs account for more than 90% of businesses and 70% of GDP (Lukonga, 2020_[29]). The lack of knowledge and skills regarding how to improve quality and productivity is a key barrier preventing them from realising their full potential. The Kaizen approach, promoted by Japanese co-operation efforts, seeks to resolve these problems while increasing management skills within companies, by sharing specific experiences and tools. It is based on a culture of gradual improvement at all levels of the organisation and can be applied to the renewable energy sector. Originally designed to optimise organisational management in the workplace, the Kaizen approach has since been integrated into Japan’s educational programmes to support the development of fundamental skills for employability (Suzuki and Sakamaki, 2020_[30]).

The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the African Union Development Agency – New Partnership for Africa’s Development (AUDA-NEPAD) launched the Africa Kaizen Initiative (AKI) in 2017. This ten-year programme aims to accelerate the dissemination and impact of Kaizen activities across the continent (AUDA-NEPAD, 2021_[31]). In Tunisia, the initiative’s first partner, eight industrial sectors were targeted. In Libya, under the aegis of the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy, the country’s “Kaizen Masters” ran two training sessions for companies and start-ups headed by young entrepreneurs and women, focused on the energy sector (WFP, 2023_[32]). The annual JICA-AUDA-NEPAD Africa Kaizen Conference serves as a platform for sharing knowledge on lessons learned from Kaizen policies at the national level. From 2017 to 2022, Kaizen-related co-operation projects in 27 African countries reached 1 400 trainers, 18 000 companies and more than 280 000 managers and workers in these companies (JICA, 2023_[33]).

Public policies to improve skills in the renewable energy sector in North Africa

To develop renewable-energy-related skills, North African countries should consider adopting three key public policy priorities: developing strategies to anticipate the demand for skills; increasing the quality of training on offer and improving access to information and training; and mobilising funding, alongside regional and international co-operation with public and private actors.

Implementing national strategies to anticipate the growing demand for skills

Innovative strategies to develop renewable-energy-related skills at the national level will be crucial. This can be achieved by closely co-ordinating public policies relating to the environment, renewable energies and skills, and by setting up mechanisms to anticipate, map, standardise and monitor skills. The bodies responsible for these activities should work with the Ministries for the Environment. In addition, the ratification and strict enforcement of environmental regulations could stimulate skills development in the sector (ERF/GIZ, 2023_[34]). Some countries in the region are starting to pursue greater policy coherence by integrating skills and human resource development into their renewable energy policies. However, these initiatives are often confined to specific areas, such as the identification of skills needs and initial vocational training. Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia stand out for their successful integration of skills development into their national renewable energy strategies (Table 6.5). Furthermore, a review of intellectual property laws could facilitate knowledge transfer in the green economy, encourage the transition to renewable energy and promote environmentally sustainable technologies.

Table 6.5. National renewable energy strategies incorporating skills development in the sector

Country	National strategy for renewable- energy-related skills development	National renewable energy strategy	Renewable- energy-related training or skills integrated into the strategy	Notes	Term	Status	Lead body
Algeria	Yes	Programme de développement des énergies renouvelables [Renewable Energy Development Programme]	Yes	Algeria’s strategy for developing renewable energy focuses on establishing the sector in combination with a training and upskilling programme. It aims to harness local Algerian skills, particularly in the fields of engineering and project management, to support the sector’s growth. The renewable energy programme, designed to meet the electricity needs of the national market, is also expected to directly and indirectly create thousands of jobs.	2015-2030	Ongoing	Ministry of Energy and Mines
Egypt	Yes	Stratégie intégrée pour une énergie durable (Integrated Strategy for Sustainable Energy – ISES)	Yes	Under this strategy, Egypt has committed to developing skills for jobs in the renewable energy sector, notably through the creation of centres of excellence as part of an initiative to reform technical education.	2008-2035	Ongoing	Egyptian Supreme Council of Energy
Libya1	No	Plan stratégique pour les énergies renouvelables (Strategic Plan for Renewable Energies)2	No	-	2013-2025	Ongoing	Renewable Energy Authority of Libya (REAOL)2
Morocco	No	Stratégie nationale de l’efficacité énergétique (National Energy Efficiency Strategy)	Yes	Under its strategy, Morocco has committed to: promote the Centre of Excellence for Energy Efficiency (Marrakech) develop vocational and technical training set up certification labels and targeted training programmes for professionals develop e-learning courses set up core teams with energy-related skills within communes or associations of communes carry out a study to identify the skills and occupations required to meet emerging local demand	2020-2030	Ongoing	Ministry of Energy, Mines and the Environment
Mauritania	No	No	-	-	-	-	-
Tunisia	No	Stratégie Énergétique de la Tunisie à l’horizon 2035 (Tunisia’s 2035 Energy Strategy)	Yes	Tunisia plans to maximise the socio-economic benefits of the strategy by taking a proactive approach to capacity building and skills development, technology transfer, research and development, and industrial policy to support the energy transition.	2023-2035	Ongoing	Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy

1. In 2023, the Libyan government launched the National Strategy for Renewable Energies and Energy Efficiency (NSREEE) outlining plans to achieve a combined solar and wind power capacity of 4 GW by 2035, with the specific target of reaching 20% renewable energy in the total energy mix by 2035. The strategy comprises four pillars aimed at diversifying energy sources, investing in renewable energy and increasing energy efficiency (Intec, 2024_[35]; Renewables Now, 2023_[36]). As the official document had not been published online before the publication of this report, it was not possible to analyse the inclusion of training or skills.

2. The Libyan government created the Renewable Energy Authority of Libya (REAOL) in 2007. Its main objective was to implement targeted policies to meet the government’s objective of 10% renewable energy in the total energy mix by 2020, a target that has not yet been met. REAOL implements renewable energy projects, incentivises and supports related industries, proposes supportive legislation and regulations, and assesses Libya’s renewable energy potential to identify priority areas (IEA, 2024_[37]).

Source: ERF/GIZ (2023_[34]), Green Jobs and the Future of Work in Egypt: A Focus on the Agriculture and Renewable Energy Sectors, https://erf.org.eg/publications/green-jobs-and-the-future-of-work-in-egypt-a-focus-on-the-agriculture-and-renewable-energy-sectors/; Republic of Tunisia (2023_[38]), Stratégie Energétique de la Tunisie à l’Horizon 2035 : Synthèse, https://www.energiemines.gov.tn/fileadmin/docs-u1/synth%C3%A8se_strat%C3%A9gie_2035.pdf; Kingdom of Morocco (2020_[39]), Stratégie nationale de l’efficacité énergétique à l’horizon 2030, https://www.mem.gov.ma/Lists/Lst_rapports/Attachments/33/Strat%C3%A9gue%20Nationale%20de%20l%27Efficacit%C3%A9%20%C3%A9nerg%C3%A9tique%20%C3%A0%20l%27horizon%202030.pdf; IRENA (2018_[40]), Renewable Energy Outlook: Egypt, https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2018/Oct/IRENA_Outlook_Egypt_2018_En_summary.pdf?la=en&hash=58DBAA614BE0675F66D3B4A2AC68833FF78700A0; IEA (2016_[41]), Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Development Plan 2015-2030, https://www.iea.org/policies/6103-renewable-energy-and-energy-efficiency-development-plan-2015-2030; Renewable Energy Authority of Lybia (2012_[42]), Libya Renewable Energy Strategic Plan 2013-2025, https://climate-laws.org/documents/libya-renewable-energy-strategic-plan-2013-2025_100b?q=libya&id=libya-renewable-energy-strategic-plan-2013-2025_2e80; Ministère de l’Énergie et des Mines (2011_[43]), Programme des Énergies Renouvelables et de l’Efficacité Énergétique, https://climate-laws.org/document/renewable-energy-and-energy-efficiency-development-plan_7cf0.

To ensure an effective transition to renewable energies, it will be important to set up a dedicated co-ordinating body responsible for aligning skills supply with needs in the renewable energy sector. This body would also be tasked with resolving current challenges, such as limited funding for co-ordination between educational institutions and companies, and developing renewable-energy-related skills in the education and training system. In addition, effective co-ordination will improve resource use, helping to strengthen the sustainability of initiatives by harmonising and co-ordinating them with sectoral approaches (ILO, 2018_[16]).

In Morocco, the Moroccan Agency for Sustainable Energy (Masen) plays a central role in efforts to achieve the objectives of the National Renewable Energy Programme, which aims to generate 52% of electricity from renewables by 2030. Through tripartite partnerships and the establishment of training institutes for renewable energy occupations, Masen is training a skilled workforce that meets the needs of the sector (Masen, 2024_[44]).

Policies and programmes aimed at delivering renewable-energy-related skills should take a multisectoral approach that is mindful of skill transferability. Such an approach would offer countries in the region the opportunity to achieve economies of scale and develop specialisations by capitalising on their comparative advantages in the sector. Extractive economies seeking to make the energy transition, such as Algeria and Libya, should target engineering and project management skills, to minimise the disruption to workers affected by the transition (Table 6.6). There are synergies between skills in the coal sector and the solar photovoltaic sector, and between skills in the offshore wind and offshore oil and gas industries (IRENA, 2018_[45]). On the other hand, economies aiming to strengthen their position in renewable energy and energy efficiency value chains should strengthen their capacity through technology, engineering and innovation centres (AUC/OECD, 2022_[11]).

Table 6.6. Transferable skills by value chain segment in the renewable energy sector

Segment	Transferable skills
Project development	Technical studies (geotechnical, water requirements, etc.) Social and environmental impact assessments Site preparation (clearing, grubbing, etc.) Grid connection and reinforcement studies
Manufacturing and distribution	Component assembly
Construction and installation	Component procurement Construction Civil engineering work
Operation and maintenance	Basic operations Site cleaning and security management Regular mechanical and electrical maintenance Power supply operation and maintenance

Source: World Bank/ESMAP (2024_[27]), Job Creation and Skills Development During the Energy Transition – Egypt, https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099012324070535949/pdf/P17054613550c90311bcca14bbb87596a7a.pdf.

Governments can adopt participatory, inclusive and proactive national strategies to anticipate the demand for skills. This is particularly true in key sub-sectors such as green hydrogen, cooling technologies, water desalination and efficient energy storage. This approach would take citizens’ interests into account when planning renewable energy projects, especially with regard to local development projects, employment and gender equality. Incentives can encourage private investors to hire local workers to implement renewable energy projects. Skills needs can also be anticipated through social dialogue, which positions workers and employers as sources of informed opinion and expertise (ERF/GIZ, 2023_[34]). This dialogue should be gender-sensitive, both in terms of approach and budgeting, to facilitate women’s participation in the labour market (Figure 6.4 and Figure 6.6). Similarly, a decentralised territorial approach can encourage women to participate actively in the renewable energies sector, in both upstream and downstream segments of value chains (IRENA, 2019_[46]).

In Morocco, Action 48.5 of the National Energy Efficiency Strategy calls for the creation of rural energy co-operatives that bring together local skills in order to develop local energy service offerings tailored to the needs of farming communities. There is a particular focus on advice about, and maintenance of, solar pumps and high-tech equipment (Kingdom of Morocco, 2020_[39]).

Expanding the supply of renewable-energy-related skills through high-quality training programmes, including in research and development, vocational training and apprenticeships

Investing in technology centres and research and development should guarantee the emergence of a skilled workforce and encourage innovation. There is particularly high demand for solar energy researchers, wind farm project and operations managers, geothermal engineers, energy modellers and engineers specialising in climate and solar thermal energy. In recent years, efforts have been made to create research and development bodies to improve research into renewable energies, promote energy efficiency and stimulate co-operation between companies.

In Tunisia, the Borj-Cédria Technopole is a major hub for research and development in the areas of renewable energy and sustainable development. It brings together 450 permanent researchers and 600 PhD students and postdoctoral positions, and is responsible for 16% of national scientific output. In 2023, the Centre for Research and Energy Technologies (CRTEn) launched the Energy Training & Consulting laboratory to strengthen technology transfer in the renewable energy sector (World Bank/ESMAP, 2024_[22]).

In Algeria, the Renewable Energy Development Centre (CDER) designs and implements solar, wind, geothermal and biomass energy programmes. It has three research units and a commercial subsidiary, ER2, which now has nationwide reach as a centre of excellence in the field of renewable energy (CDER, 2024_[47]).

The active engagement of national authorities is crucial for developing TVET institutions and making them viable. National authorities play a central role in creating an enabling environment for these institutions to grow. International partners also provide financial and technical support. Increased funding for national operators would incentivise TVET providers to increase the supply of skills in the sector.

In Egypt, sectoral centres of excellence have been set up within the Ministry of Education and Technical Education (MoETE). They provide specialised TVET services in specific sectors, including renewable energy and related sectors that they aim to develop. These centres support technical high schools through an education system that integrates both the educational and commercial spheres. They are also tasked with establishing links with universities and research centres to provide schools with up-to-date knowledge at an advanced level (ERF/GIZ, 2023_[34]).

Internships and work-study programmes give young people the opportunity to develop their professional skills in the sector. These programmes should pay particular attention to the development of technical skills, such as mechanics and electricity, as well as soft skills, such as project management. It is essential to incentivise paid internship programmes, especially for recent engineering graduates. A number of tax incentives are available to stimulate corporate participation, within a clearly defined framework. In addition, work-study programmes in sub-sectors of excellence should be promoted to encourage the development of the strategic skills needed in the renewable energy sector (AUC/OECD, 2022_[11]).

In Mauritania, the Ministry of Employment and Vocational Training, in partnership with the National Union of Mauritanian Employers and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), launched the STAGI digital platform in 2022, to facilitate the social and professional integration of young graduates via a mentoring system and by connecting them with companies for internships (UNDP, 2022_[48]).

Mobilising regional and international financing and co-operation, from both the public and private sectors, to support the development of renewable-energy-related skills

Regional partnerships help disseminate knowledge and identify synergies. Such initiatives help strengthen research and training efforts, and promote innovation and the creation of networks of experts. Setting up regional platforms would facilitate the sharing of best practices and knowledge, while pooling human, financial and logistical resources. Closer regional co-operation would enable us to better identify each country’s position within value chains, making it easier to identify which skills to develop. For example, some countries in the region have phosphate and cobalt reserves, which could allow them to develop specific industries in sectors related to the energy transition, such as battery and solar panel manufacturing.

An example of bilateral co-operation, the MICEP (Morocco-Ivory Coast Energy Park) is a research partnership between Morocco’s Research Institute for Solar Energy and New Energies (IRESEN) and Côte d’Ivoire’s Félix Houphouët-Boigny National Polytechnic Institute (INPHB) to promote training, knowledge transfer and innovation in the field of energy efficiency and renewable energy (World Bank/ESMAP, 2024_[49]).

At the regional level, the Regional Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (RCREEE) offers capacity-building programmes on request to countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region that want to establish and strengthen their qualifications, skills and expertise in renewable energy and energy efficiency (AUC/OECD, 2022_[11]).

Mutual recognition of skills, diplomas and certificates can improve labour mobility in the region. Mobility improves access to a specialised workforce, getting people into jobs where their skills will be most useful and stimulating investment in the sector. It also drives higher demand, by increasing the flow of human capital into countries, notably through efforts to harmonise education, social protection and employment policies in the region. Despite the divergent policies observed in the region, relevant initiatives have emerged, most notably in the form of international technical bodies.

The Mediterranean Network of National Information Centres on the Recognition of Qualifications (MERIC-Net), which was funded by the European Commission from 2016 to 2019, aimed to encourage and improve the recognition of qualifications in the Mediterranean region, in order to facilitate mobility within the higher education institutions of the countries involved. This project has enabled new recognition procedures to be introduced based on the expertise acquired during the project (MERIC-Net, 2024_[50]), (IEA, 2020_[15]).

Implementing a dedicated regulatory framework can strengthen ties with public and private partners at the international level. Developing an enabling environment for partnerships with the private sector through reforms or the creation of dedicated institutions could help stimulate research and innovation and facilitate investment and access to finance in the sector (Box 6.3). Currently, more than 75% of the growth of the renewable energy sector in North Africa is the result of supportive policies and regulatory frameworks that facilitate private investment (IEA, 2020_[15]).

In Morocco, the partnership between Huawei and the National Office of Electricity and Drinking Water (ONEE), established in 2023, serves as a lever for strengthening the sector’s technical and technological skills. The agreement provides for access to ONEE’s electricity science and technology centre and its technical laboratory equipment, as well as the design and implementation of joint projects (La vie éco, 2023_[51]).

Since 2020, the World Bank has been providing technical assistance to Tunisia’s General Authority of Public-Private Partnership (IGPPP) to improve the viability and efficiency of public and private partnerships. This initiative has a project development fund focused on three areas of intervention: i) building capacity to establish a robust pipeline of projects, including 1 700 megawatts of solar and wind power; ii) strengthening project preparation (profitability analysis, feasibility, calls for tender, etc.); and iii) improving project monitoring (Grimm, Bertolini and Tejada Ibañez, 2024_[52]).

Box 6.3. Casablanca Finance City’s AFIC Initiative: a talent pool to catalyse competitiveness

The Africa Finance Institute in Casablanca (AFIC), an initiative of the Casablanca Finance City Authority and the Casablanca-Settat Region, aims to promote the adoption of professional standards in the financial and professional services sector.

Scheduled to open in June 2025, the institute will offer training programmes and certifications, focusing on green and sustainable finance, to enable finance professionals to stay up to date with the latest industry trends and best practices. AFIC aims to promote the highest standards of ethics and integrity in the financial and professional services sector, and to strengthen and diversify the pool of highly qualified multilingual professionals who meet the needs of Casablanca Finance City, Morocco and the entire African continent.

The initiative is supported by an ecosystem of national and international strategic partners and professional bodies such as the Institute of International Finance (IIF), the Chartered Financial Analyst Institute (CFA Institute), the Chartered Insurance Institute (CII), the Chartered Banker Institute (CBI) and the Chartered Institute for Securities & Investment (CISI).

Annex 6.A. Qualitative survey of key actors in North Africa’s renewable energy sector

Survey methodology

The survey is based on a qualitative approach using semi-structured interviews with key actors in the renewable energy sector. Interviews were scheduled for January 2024. To ensure that the research would comply with high ethical standards, participants were asked for their explicit consent for the interview audio to be recorded. The interviews, which lasted between 45 minutes and an hour, were transcribed.5

The target population

The survey is based on a non-representative sample of 18 participants covering most North African countries. It includes representatives from the public sector, industry associations, and private and public companies operating in the renewables sector or using renewable energy:

• Representatives from the public sector (from either the Ministry of Education or the Vocational Training Office) are involved in developing training programmes. These institutions offer training programmes covering initial, continuing and vocational training.

• The industry associations are directly and indirectly involved in training the staff of member companies. These associations act as intermediaries between their member companies and government ministries, and defend their members’ interests.

• Organisations facilitating access to public and private financing provide support with preparing funding applications and finding investors.

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Notes

← 1. The number of warmer days and nights (+2°C) has almost doubled since the 1970s. The rainfall trends observed are more varied and less pronounced, characterised by marked decreases in Morocco and Algeria, as well as parts of Libya, and a slight increase in Egypt (Plan Bleu, 2008_[53]).

← 2. Eight Parties have yet to ratify the Paris Agreement: Iran (1.30% of global emissions), Türkiye (1.24%), Iraq (0.20%), Angola (0.17%), Yemen (0.07%), Eritrea (0.01%), South Sudan (data available) and Libya (data not available).

← 3. The Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS) is based on current policy parameters, and takes account of ambitious targets and commitments only insofar as they are backed by detailed policies. Mauritania is not included in this calculation. Unpublished data.

← 4. The survey findings are based on interviews conducted across the region, covering both the public and private sectors, as well as academia. The annex presents the survey methodology and the target population.

← 5. The questionnaire is available on request.