Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2022

3. Overall trends in agricultural support

OECD countries

Total support to agriculture (TSE) in OECD countries1 represented USD 345 billion (EUR 301 billion) per year on average in 2019-21 of which 73%, or USD 247 billion (EUR 216 billion), was provided as support to producers individually (PSE). Producer support represented 17.3% of gross farm receipts (%PSE) in 2019-21 across the OECD area, a decline from around 28% in 2000-02 and more than 35% in 1986‑88 (Table 3.1).

The way support is delivered to producers also evolved. In particular, the long-term decline of support based on commodity output (including market price support and output payments) characterises the evolution of support to agriculture in the OECD area. OECD work identifies this as having the strongest potential to distort agricultural production and trade together with payments based on the unconstrained use of variable inputs, which slightly increased across OECD countries compared to the beginning of the millennium. For these support measures, a particularly high risk of negative impacts on the environment has also been found. Rice is by far the commodity that receives the highest level of support in the OECD area, followed by sugar, sunflower seed and beef (Figure 3.2). Market price support represents the largest share of this support, and is driven by a range of domestic and trade policies. For a number of commodities, in particular maize, sorghum, soybeans and sheep meat, support is also provided through other types of transfers, including payments less directly coupled to production.

At the other end of the spectrum in the PSE classification, a number of countries apply significantly less-distorting forms of support, such as payments based on parameters not linked to current production, or based on non-commodity criteria such as land set-aside, or payments for specific environmental or animal welfare outcomes (Chapter 2, Figure 2.14). Most notably, payments based on historical entitlements (generally crop area or livestock numbers of a given reference period in the past) increased in the last two decades, representing some 4% of gross farm receipts (GFR) and about 22% of the PSE during 2019‑21. The share of payments based on current crop area, animal numbers, receipts or income has fallen compared to 2000‑02; these payments now also represent around 22% of total producer support (Table 3.1).

Expenditures financing general services to the sector (GSSE) increased (in nominal terms) in the OECD area from USD 37 billion per year in 2000-02 to USD 45 billion in 2019-21 (expressed in Euros, they slightly declined from EUR 40 billion to EUR 39 billion). However, relative to the size of the sector, expenditures for general services declined from 5.4% of agricultural value of production to 3.5%, suggesting that these expenditures did not keep pace with sector growth. In 2019-21, most of this went to infrastructure (USD 17 billion), a slight increase compared to 2000-02, and agricultural knowledge and innovation (USD 14 billion), an increase of 79% in nominal terms and almost in line with the sector’s growth. Expenditures for inspection and control services more than doubled, while spending for marketing and promotion remained around the same and public stockholding declined substantially over the same period. But all of these represented smaller shares of the GSSE expenditure (Table 3.1). Total support to agriculture as a share of GDP declined significantly over time.

Figure 3.1. OECD: Development of support to agriculture

 

 

 

 

 

Source: OECD (2021), “Producer and Consumer Support Estimates”, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-pcse-data-en.

 

Source: OECD (2021), “Producer and Consumer Support Estimates”, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-pcse-data-en.

Table 3.1. OECD: Estimates of support to agriculture (USD)

Million USD

	1986-88	2000-02	2019-21	2019	2020	2021p
Total value of production (at farm gate)	594 108	673 335	1 268 316	1 199 097	1 222 456	1 383 396
of which: share of MPS commodities (%)	71.27	70.23	72.42	71.63	72.30	73.32
Total value of consumption (at farm gate)	557 842	662 640	1 132 595	1 101 876	1 115 429	1 180 478
Producer Support Estimate (PSE)	230 224	216 984	247 240	243 906	252 441	245 375
Support based on commodity output	187 284	139 248	101 838	101 935	100 711	102 867
Market Price Support1	174 689	124 295	90 416	97 749	89 890	83 608
Positive Market Price Support	178 990	124 886	90 892	98 188	90 123	84 365
Negative Market Price Support	-4 302	-592	-476	-439	-233	-757
Payments based on output	12 596	14 953	11 422	4 186	10 821	19 259
Payments based on input use	19 571	19 523	30 901	28 958	35 615	28 129
Based on variable input use	9 146	8 012	11 627	9 987	15 501	9 393
with input constraints	1 146	342	826	882	880	716
Based on fixed capital formation	6 882	5 079	10 042	10 687	11 210	8 228
with input constraints	1 638	629	2 250	2 324	2 346	2 082
Based on on-farm services	3 543	6 431	9 233	8 284	8 904	10 509
with input constraints	439	967	1 707	1 533	1 721	1 866
Payments based on current A/An/R/I, production required	19 377	41 382	53 834	56 565	51 182	53 755
Based on Receipts / Income	2 052	3 173	4 778	4 345	4 773	5 215
Based on Area planted / Animal numbers	17 325	38 209	49 056	52 220	46 408	48 541
with input constraints	4 093	16 898	41 230	44 757	39 206	39 726
Payments based on non-current A/An/R/I, production required	533	71	2 159	2 373	1 982	2 123
Payments based on non-current A/An/R/I, production not required	2 080	13 721	52 687	48 957	57 053	52 051
With variable payment rates	181	4 318	8 754	6 366	13 334	6 563
with commodity exceptions	0	4 079	8 582	6 229	13 152	6 364
With fixed payment rates	1 899	9 403	43 932	42 591	43 719	45 488
with commodity exceptions	1 561	6 081	2 729	2 515	2 588	3 084
Payments based on non-commodity criteria	1 078	3 206	5 058	4 387	5 031	5 756
Based on long-term resource retirement	1 076	2 900	3 378	2 873	3 375	3 886
Based on a specific non-commodity output	2	237	1 570	1 450	1 522	1 738
Based on other non-commodity criteria	0	69	111	65	135	132
Miscellaneous payments	300	-166	763	731	867	693
Percentage PSE (%)	35.44	28.33	17.35	18.13	18.23	15.88
Producer NPC (coeff.)	1.46	1.26	1.09	1.09	1.09	1.08
Producer NAC (coeff.)	1.55	1.40	1.21	1.22	1.22	1.19
General Services Support Estimate (GSSE)	25 568	36 575	44 756	44 425	46 066	43 776
Agricultural knowledge and innovation system	4 846	8 019	14 326	14 099	13 904	14 975
Inspection and control	1 076	1 931	4 115	4 195	4 272	3 878
Development and maintenance of infrastructure	10 223	16 399	17 076	18 350	17 899	14 981
Marketing and promotion	2 156	5 572	6 689	5 179	7 506	7 381
Cost of public stockholding	5 872	2 282	628	702	565	616
Miscellaneous	1 395	2 371	1 922	1 900	1 920	1 945
Percentage GSSE (% of TSE)	9.27	13.20	12.96	13.29	13.21	12.38
Consumer Support Estimate (CSE)	-155 058	-117 160	-58 156	-74 274	-60 383	-39 810
Transfers to producers from consumers	-163 991	-121 794	-86 720	-94 103	-85 352	-80 707
Other transfers from consumers	-22 443	-19 546	-26 194	-27 281	-26 024	-25 276
Transfers to consumers from taxpayers	19 956	23 580	53 438	45 825	50 121	64 367
Excess feed cost	11 420	599	1 321	1 284	871	1 807
Percentage CSE (%)	-28.83	-18.33	-5.39	-7.03	-5.67	-3.57
Consumer NPC (coeff.)	1.50	1.27	1.11	1.12	1.11	1.10
Consumer NAC (coeff.)	1.41	1.22	1.06	1.08	1.06	1.04
Total Support Estimate (TSE)	275 748	277 139	345 434	334 155	348 628	353 518
Transfers from consumers	186 434	141 339	112 914	121 384	111 376	105 983
Transfers from taxpayers	111 757	155 345	258 713	240 053	263 277	272 810
Budget revenues	-22 443	-19 546	-26 194	-27 281	-26 024	-25 276
Percentage TSE (% of GDP)	1.94	1.00	0.63	0.62	0.67	0.61
Total Budgetary Support Estimate (TBSE)	101 060	152 844	255 018	236 406	258 738	269 909
Percentage TBSE (% of GDP)	0.71	0.55	0.47	0.44	0.49	0.47

Note: p: provisional. NPC: Nominal Protection Coefficient. NAC: Nominal Assistance Coefficient. A/An/R/I: Area planted/Animal numbers/Receipts/Income. The OECD total for 1986-88 includes all 38 OECD member countries except Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Israel, Latvia, Lithuania and Slovenia, for which data are not available. The OECD total for 2000-02 includes all 38 OECD member countries except Latvia and Lithuania. TSE as a share of GDP for 1986-88 for the OECD is an estimate based on available data. 1. Market Price Support (MPS) is net of producer levies and excess feed cost. MPS commodities: see notes to individual country tables.

Source: OECD (2021), “Producer and Consumer Support Estimates”, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-pcse-data-en.

Emerging economies

Agricultural policies in the 11 emerging economies2 covered by this report generated positive transfers to the sector averaging USD 464 billion (EUR 403 billion) per year in 2019-21 of which USD 357 billion (EUR 310 billion) went to individual producers. At the same time, however, policies in a few countries, such as Argentina, India and Viet Nam, suppressed domestic prices for certain products, generating an implicit tax in the form of negative market price support (MPS) averaging USD 117 billion (EUR 101 billion) per year in the same period.

As a consequence, net TSE represented USD 347 billion (EUR 302 billion) per year, while net PSE averaged USD 240 billion (EUR 209 billion) per year during 2019‑21. Aggregate support to producers across emerging economies represented on average 8.8% of gross farm receipts in 2019-21: positive transfers to producers worth 13.1% of GFR, and an implicit tax worth ‑4.3% of GFR. This %PSE represents a substantial increase from 3.8% in 2000-02 (Table 3.2).

The share of transfers based on output (accounting for both positive and negative MPS and output-based payments) and unconstrained variable input use in gross producer support still averaged 83% in 2019-21 – a modest decline from the 89% observed at the beginning of the century. In emerging economies, maize, sugar and rapeseed were the most supported commodities (with transfers amounting to between 23% and 30% of commodity gross farm receipts) while oats and milk were the most taxed in 2019-21. Almost all of these transfers to specific commodities operate through market price support, and are a result of domestic or trade policies such as minimum support prices or import tariffs (in the case of positive transfers) or export taxation and other restrictions (in the case of negative transfers).

Among remaining forms of producer support, the most important are payments based on other input use (mainly fixed capital formation) and payments to areas planted and animal numbers. Payments based on areas and animal numbers were almost non-existent across emerging economies in 2000-02 but reached more than 13% of aggregate net support to producers in 2019-21. In turn, the relative importance of support for investments, (often related to irrigation) declined over time, now representing less than 8% of the PSE. All other forms of support to producers remain marginal (Table 3.2).

Expenditure on GSSE in emerging economies reached an annual average of USD 60 billion (EUR 52 billion) in 2019-21. Most of this went to infrastructure projects (USD 28 billion), often related to irrigation, and public stockholding (USD 16 billion). The remaining expenditure mainly went to finance agricultural knowledge and innovation (USD 11 billion) (Table 3.2). Relative to agricultural value of production, average expenditures for general services declined somewhat and remain lower than the OECD average. Aggregate total support to agriculture as a share of GDP slightly increased to 1.4% in 2019-21, and is mainly driven by producer support, at close to 70% of the total support.

Figure 3.3. Emerging Economies: Development of support to agriculture

 

 

 

 

 

Source: OECD (2021), “Producer and Consumer Support Estimates”, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-pcse-data-en.

 

Source: OECD (2021), “Producer and Consumer Support Estimates”, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-pcse-data-en.

Table 3.2. Emerging Economies: Estimates of support to agriculture (USD)

Million USD

	2000-02	2019-21	2019	2020	2021p
Total value of production (at farm gate)	522 758	2 597 222	2 407 902	2 585 029	2 798 733
of which: share of MPS commodities (%)	75.13	78.39	77.40	76.87	80.91
Total value of consumption (at farm gate)	521 308	2 526 229	2 289 535	2 539 867	2 749 285
Producer Support Estimate (PSE)	20 809	240 265	204 817	238 650	277 328
Support based on commodity output	1 545	113 634	91 466	113 343	136 094
Market Price Support1	1 130	109 630	88 405	108 712	131 772
Positive Market Price Support	24 714	226 131	189 074	226 115	263 205
Negative Market Price Support	-23 584	-116 502	-100 669	-117 402	-131 434
Payments based on output	416	4 005	3 061	4 631	4 322
Payments based on input use	17 321	68 415	62 620	65 565	77 060
Based on variable input use	11 479	47 706	42 326	46 463	54 329
with input constraints	0	805	995	730	689
Based on fixed capital formation	4 466	17 901	17 455	16 866	19 382
with input constraints	1	944	1 084	661	1 087
Based on on-farm services	1 377	2 809	2 839	2 236	3 350
with input constraints	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on current A/An/R/I, production required	813	31 872	28 117	32 614	34 885
Based on Receipts / Income	813	2 166	2 455	1 960	2 083
Based on Area planted / Animal numbers	0	29 706	25 662	30 654	32 802
with input constraints	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on non-current A/An/R/I, production required	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on non-current A/An/R/I, production not required	370	23 392	19 981	24 078	26 116
With variable payment rates	0	0	0	0	0
with commodity exceptions	0	0	0	0	0
With fixed payment rates	370	23 392	19 981	24 078	26 116
with commodity exceptions	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on non-commodity criteria	458	1 629	1 681	1 550	1 658
Based on long-term resource retirement	458	1 629	1 681	1 550	1 658
Based on a specific non-commodity output	0	0	0	0	0
Based on other non-commodity criteria	0	0	0	0	0
Miscellaneous payments	302	1 322	951	1 500	1 515
Percentage PSE (%)	3.84	8.81	8.11	8.79	9.42
Producer NPC (coeff.)	1.01	1.06	1.04	1.06	1.07
Producer NAC (coeff.)	1.04	1.10	1.09	1.10	1.10
General Services Support Estimate (GSSE)	18 949	60 211	54 990	60 734	64 909
Agricultural knowledge and innovation system	2 978	10 906	11 745	10 273	10 701
Inspection and control	784	4 404	4 291	4 392	4 528
Development and maintenance of infrastructure	6 955	27 884	21 710	29 665	32 276
Marketing and promotion	28	716	649	700	798
Cost of public stockholding	8 102	16 153	16 436	15 594	16 430
Miscellaneous	103	148	158	109	176
Percentage GSSE (% of TSE)	42.59	17.34	19.65	16.14	16.84
Consumer Support Estimate (CSE)	-1 171	-124 589	-104 995	-110 368	-158 403
Transfers to producers from consumers	-4 122	-143 619	-105 908	-144 244	-180 705
Other transfers from consumers	-2 853	-47 748	-28 065	-62 306	-52 873
Transfers to consumers from taxpayers	4 735	46 783	20 033	77 019	43 297
Excess feed cost	1 069	19 996	8 944	19 164	31 878
Percentage CSE (%)	-0.23	-5.02	-4.63	-4.48	-5.85
Consumer NPC (coeff.)	1.01	1.08	1.06	1.09	1.09
Consumer NAC (coeff.)	1.00	1.05	1.05	1.05	1.06
Total Support Estimate (TSE)	44 494	347 259	279 840	376 402	385 534
Transfers from consumers	6 975	191 367	133 972	206 551	233 578
Transfers from taxpayers	40 372	203 640	173 932	232 157	204 829
Budget revenues	-2 853	-47 748	-28 065	-62 306	-52 873
Percentage TSE (% of GDP)	1.29	1.41	1.18	1.64	1.41
Total Budgetary Support Estimate (TBSE)	43 364	237 629	191 435	267 690	253 762
Percentage TBSE (% of GDP)	1.26	0.96	0.81	1.16	0.93

Note: p: provisional. NPC: Nominal Protection Coefficient. NAC: Nominal Assistance Coefficient. A/An/R/I: Area planted/Animal numbers/Receipts/Income. The Emerging Economies include Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, the Philippines, Russian Federation, South Africa, Ukraine and Viet Nam. 1. Market Price Support (MPS) is net of producer levies and excess feed cost. MPS commodities: see notes to individual country tables.

Source: OECD (2021), “Producer and Consumer Support Estimates”, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-pcse-data-en.

All countries

The total support to agriculture provided in all countries covered in this report represented USD 700 billion (EUR 540 billion) per year on average in 2019-21, of which around 71% or USD 494 billion (EUR 383 billion) were provided as support to producers. Gross transfers to the sector are significantly larger than that, given the negative market price support estimated for some emerging economies: in total, USD 817 billion (EUR 631 billion) were transferred to the sector across the 54 countries covered, while at the same time negative MPS in some countries amounted to USD 117 billion (EUR 91 billion). Expressed as a share of gross farm receipts, aggregate support to producers represented 11.8% in 2019-21 on average for all countries covered, a reduction from 18.2% in 2000-02 (Table 3.3).

Changes between 2000-02 and 2019-21 to the structure of support in all countries in the report were relatively moderate. The share of potentially most-distorting transfers (based on output or based on unconstrained use of variable inputs) declined slightly, but these policies continue to represent around 70% of gross producer transfers across all countries (whether positive or negative, in absolute terms). Transfers based on output became less prominent while those based on unconstrained input use increased. Overall, across all countries covered, sugar is most strongly supported commodity, followed by maize and rice. Several livestock products, particularly beef, pig meat, poultry meat and sheep meat, also receive substantial transfers.

Among the remaining forms of support to producers, the most important are payments based on area planted and animal numbers (18% of all producer support), and those based on historical parameters not requiring production. The importance of these latter payments (which are decoupled from current production and hence much less production- and trade-distorting and with less impact on the environment) increased significantly and now represents 16% of all producer support (Table 3.3).

Across all countries in this report, the expenditures financing general services to the sector (GSSE) reached an annual average of USD 106 billion (EUR 90 billion) in 2019-21, almost twice the amount in nominal terms spent at the beginning of the century. Most of this went to infrastructure projects (USD 45 billion), agricultural knowledge and innovation (USD 26 billion), and public stockholding (USD 17 billion) (Table 3.3). In spite of the growth, expenditures for general services declined in relative terms as the value of agricultural production more than tripled in nominal terms since 2000-02. Total support to agriculture as a share of GDP declined slightly over time, mainly driven by the smaller relative size of the sector within economies.

Figure 3.5. All countries: Development of support to agriculture

 

 

 

 

 

Source: OECD (2021), “Producer and Consumer Support Estimates”, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-pcse-data-en.

 

Source: OECD (2021), “Producer and Consumer Support Estimates”, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-pcse-data-en.

Table 3.3. All countries: Estimates of support to agriculture (USD)

Million USD

	2000-02	2019-21	2019	2020	2021p
Total value of production (at farm gate)	1 196 093	3 893 048	3 633 791	3 831 389	4 213 965
of which: share of MPS commodities (%)	72.37	76.37	75.45	75.35	78.31
Total value of consumption (at farm gate)	1 183 948	3 714 773	3 445 221	3 704 956	3 994 142
Producer Support Estimate (PSE)	237 793	493 717	454 046	495 938	531 167
Support based on commodity output	140 793	215 879	194 046	214 661	238 930
Market Price Support1	125 424	200 393	186 745	199 154	215 281
Positive Market Price Support	149 600	317 476	287 941	316 789	347 697
Negative Market Price Support	-24 176	-117 083	-101 197	-117 636	-132 416
Payments based on output	15 369	15 486	7 301	15 507	23 649
Payments based on input use	36 843	100 236	91 947	101 124	107 638
Based on variable input use	19 491	59 858	52 492	62 159	64 922
with input constraints	342	1 653	1 878	1 608	1 472
Based on fixed capital formation	9 545	28 230	28 399	27 885	28 405
with input constraints	630	3 195	3 365	2 960	3 259
Based on on-farm services	7 808	12 149	11 056	11 079	14 312
with input constraints	967	1 711	1 533	1 721	1 880
Payments based on current A/An/R/I, production required	42 194	88 121	86 482	85 988	91 892
Based on Receipts / Income	3 986	7 160	6 918	6 973	7 590
Based on Area planted / Animal numbers	38 209	80 960	79 564	79 015	84 302
with input constraints	16 898	42 708	45 844	40 487	41 794
Payments based on non-current A/An/R/I, production required	71	2 159	2 373	1 982	2 123
Payments based on non-current A/An/R/I, production not required	14 091	78 544	71 438	83 338	80 856
With variable payment rates	4 318	8 754	6 366	13 334	6 563
with commodity exceptions	4 079	8 582	6 229	13 152	6 364
With fixed payment rates	9 773	69 789	65 071	70 004	74 293
with commodity exceptions	6 081	2 729	2 515	2 588	3 084
Payments based on non-commodity criteria	3 664	6 850	6 297	6 759	7 495
Based on long-term resource retirement	3 358	5 025	4 567	4 935	5 573
Based on a specific non-commodity output	237	1 713	1 665	1 686	1 787
Based on other non-commodity criteria	69	113	65	137	136
Miscellaneous payments	136	1 927	1 463	2 086	2 232
Percentage PSE (%)	18.17	11.79	11.64	12.01	11.73
Producer NPC (coeff.)	1.13	1.07	1.06	1.07	1.07
Producer NAC (coeff.)	1.22	1.13	1.13	1.14	1.13
General Services Support Estimate (GSSE)	55 525	106 337	100 245	107 840	110 925
Agricultural knowledge and innovation system	10 996	25 767	26 204	24 475	26 622
Inspection and control	2 715	8 815	8 565	8 818	9 063
Development and maintenance of infrastructure	23 354	45 429	40 405	48 036	47 846
Marketing and promotion	5 600	7 466	5 875	8 317	8 207
Cost of public stockholding	10 384	16 789	17 138	16 165	17 065
Miscellaneous	2 475	2 069	2 058	2 029	2 121
Percentage GSSE (% of TSE)	17.26	15.18	16.17	14.75	14.79
Consumer Support Estimate (CSE)	-118 330	-183 172	-180 066	-171 253	-198 197
Transfers to producers from consumers	-125 915	-230 875	-200 757	-230 103	-261 764
Other transfers from consumers	-22 399	-73 975	-55 356	-88 335	-78 235
Transfers to consumers from taxpayers	28 315	100 243	65 756	127 150	107 825
Excess feed cost	1 669	21 434	10 292	20 035	33 977
Percentage CSE (%)	-10.24	-5.07	-5.33	-4.79	-5.10
Consumer NPC (coeff.)	1.14	1.09	1.08	1.09	1.09
Consumer NAC (coeff.)	1.11	1.05	1.06	1.05	1.05
Total Support Estimate (TSE)	321 633	700 297	620 047	730 928	749 916
Transfers from consumers	148 314	304 850	256 113	318 437	339 999
Transfers from taxpayers	195 717	469 423	419 289	500 825	488 153
Budget revenues	-22 399	-73 975	-55 356	-88 335	-78 235
Percentage TSE (% of GDP)	1.02	0.88	0.79	0.96	0.88
Total Budgetary Support Estimate (TBSE)	196 209	499 904	433 302	531 774	534 635
Percentage TBSE (% of GDP)	0.63	0.63	0.56	0.70	0.62

Note: p: provisional. NPC: Nominal Protection Coefficient. NAC: Nominal Assistance Coefficient. A/An/R/I: Area planted/Animal numbers/Receipts/Income. The All countries total includes all OECD countries, non-OECD EU Member States, and the Emerging Economies: Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, the Philippines, Russian Federation, South Africa, Ukraine and Viet Nam. The All countries total for 2000-02 includes data for all countries except Latvia and Lithuania, for which data are not available. 1. Market Price Support (MPS) is net of producer levies and excess feed cost. MPS commodities: see notes to individual country tables.

Source: OECD (2021), “Producer and Consumer Support Estimates”, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-pcse-data-en.

Notes

← 1.  The OECD total does not include the non-OECD EU Member States.

← 2.  The emerging economies in this report include Argentina, Brazil, the People’s Republic of China (hereafter “China”), India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, the Philippines, Russian Federation, South Africa, Ukraine, and Viet Nam.