PISA 2018 Results (Volume V)

Executive Summary

Worldwide trends and global crises, such as technological change, growing inequality and pandemics, are posing new challenges to education systems and schools around the world. School-management policies and practices play a key role in determining how education systems respond to these challenges.

This volume of PISA 2018 Results describes the policies and practices used in the education systems of the 79 countries/economies that participated in PISA 2018. It examines how policies and practices related to grouping and selecting students, resources invested in education, the governance of education systems, and evaluations and assessments are associated with performance, equity in students’ learning outcomes and student well-being. Trends in school organisation are analysed to understand how schools and school systems have changed during the past decade, and whether and how these changes are related to changes in performance and equity in students’ learning outcomes.

Effective policies, successful schools: Main findings

On grouping and sorting students

• On average across OECD countries, 6% of students had not attended or had attended pre-primary education for less than one year. These students scored lower in reading at the age of 15 than students who had attended for between one and three years, before and after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile.

• A socio-economically disadvantaged 15-year-old student was about three times more likely than an advantaged student, on average across OECD countries, to have repeated a grade at least once, even if both students scored the same in the PISA reading test. At the system level, across all participating countries and economies, those countries/economies with smaller shares of students who had repeated a grade showed higher mean reading performance and greater equity in reading performance, even after accounting for per capita GDP.

• Students in general (academic) programmes scored almost 30 points higher in reading than those in vocational programmes, on average across OECD countries, and after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile. At the system level, across OECD countries, school systems with larger shares of students in general programmes generally showed greater equity in reading performance, even after accounting for per capita GDP.

• On average across OECD countries, students in schools that group students by ability in their classes for all subjects scored eight points lower in reading than students in schools that do not group students in this way, after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile.

On resources invested in education

• Some 27% of students were enrolled in schools whose principal reported that learning is hindered by a lack of teaching staff, and 33% were enrolled in schools whose principal reported that learning is hindered by a lack of assisting staff, on average across OECD countries. After accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile, in 17 countries/economies, students in schools with more staff shortages scored lower.

• Students attending schools whose principal reported fewer shortages of material resources scored higher in reading, on average across OECD countries and in 12 countries and economies, after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile. At the system level, more shortages of educational materials were correlated with lower mean performance in reading, even after accounting for per capita GDP, across OECD countries, and across all participating countries and economies in PISA 2018.

• Around 54% of students attended a school where an effective online learning platform is available to them, on average across OECD countries. More students in advantaged schools (59% of students in advantaged schools) than in disadvantaged schools (49% of students in disadvantaged schools) had access to an effective online learning platform.

• In countries and economies with higher mean performance in reading, there tended to be smaller differences in material resources between advantaged and disadvantaged schools; in some cases, disadvantaged schools tended to have more material resources than advantaged schools.

• On average across OECD countries, performance in reading was positively associated with each additional hour of language-of-instruction lessons per week, up to 3 hours. However, this positive association between learning time in regular language-of-instruction lessons and reading performance weakened amongst students who spent more than three hours per week in these lessons.

• Education systems with larger shares of students in schools that offer a room(s) for homework tended to show better mean performance in reading, mathematics and science, even after accounting for per capita GDP.

On how education systems are governed

• After accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic profile, students in public schools scored higher in reading than students in private schools, on average across OECD countries (by 14 score points) and in 19 education systems (ranging from 13 score points higher in Indonesia to 117 points higher in Serbia).

• At the system level, across all countries and economies, school systems with larger shares of students in private-independent schools tended to show lower mean performance in reading, mathematics and science, after accounting for per capita GDP. This relationship was not observed across OECD countries.

On evaluations and assessments

• Countries and economies tended to show better equity in education when they: use student assessments to inform parents about their child’s progress; use student assessments to identify aspects of instruction or the curriculum that could be improved; use written specifications for student performance on the school’s initiative; seek feedback from students; and have regular consultations on school improvement at least every six months, based on district or national policies.

What the data imply for policy

PISA 2018 results show considerable disparities between advantaged and disadvantaged schools related to shortages of education staff and material resources, including digital resources. Ensuring that all schools have adequate and high-quality material resources, and the appropriate support, is key if students from all backgrounds are to be given equal opportunities to learn and succeed at school.

PISA also finds that in high-performing countries/economies and in those with greater equity in education, a combination of school autonomy and more centralised accountability measures work in concert to support more effective teaching and better learning. For example, countries/economies with greater equity in education often have some mandatory accountability arrangements that are set at the district or national level, such as seeking written feedback from students or having regular consultations on school improvement at least every six months. At the same time, schools are responsible for ensuring their students’ learning by, for example, developing and disseminating written standards of student performance.

Similarly, in high-performing countries/economies, implementation of a standardised policy for reading-related subjects taught at school (including a school curriculum with shared instructional materials, and staff development and training) tends to be mandatory and regulated at the district or national level, while schools encourage and make available teacher mentoring on their own initiative.

Table V.1 [1/4]. Snapshot of stratification, governance and evaluations

			Countries/economies with values above the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values not statistically different from the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values below the OECD average
		Percentage of students who had not attended pre-primary school or who had attended for less than a year	Percentage of students who had repeated a grade at least once in primary, lower secondary or upper secondary school	Percentage of students who are enrolled in a pre-vocational or vocational programme	Percentage of students in schools whose principal reported that their school groups students by ability in their classes for:
					All subjects	Some subjects
		%	%	%	%	%
OECD
	OECD average	6.2	11.4	13.8	5.2	48.7
	Australia	11.5	5.9	10.0	4.9	64.8
	Austria	2.6	14.4	65.8	2.1	29.2
	Belgium	1.6	30.8	42.5	5.6	41.9
	Canada	14.6	5.4	0.0	4.3	45.8
	Chile	4.5	23.2	1.8	5.3	38.0
	Colombia	7.7	40.8	19.5	11.5	19.4
	Czech Republic	2.8	4.6	33.9	0.9	55.8
	Denmark	1.2	3.2	0.1	11.0	63.4
	Estonia	4.1	2.9	0.1	3.2	55.5
	Finland	2.3	3.3	0.1	1.9	52.5
	France	1.5	16.6	19.1	6.7	36.4
	Germany	2.2	19.6	3.0	10.5	31.3
	Greece	2.7	4.0	12.9	2.3	17.3
	Hungary	0.6	8.5	16.1	0.7	77.4
	Iceland	1.6	0.9	0.0	0.1	47.8
	Ireland	10.3	6.1	0.7	5.3	47.1
	Israel	1.2	9.0	0.0	4.1	68.8
	Italy	3.3	13.2	49.3	23.2	26.7
	Japan	0.3	m	23.5	0.0	50.3
	Korea	3.6	4.5	16.5	3.3	54.6
	Latvia	5.1	3.7	1.1	1.5	44.4
	Lithuania	16.1	2.0	2.0	1.3	61.0
	Luxembourg	5.2	32.2	14.4	5.0	40.5
	Mexico	1.7	15.0	28.1	15.3	52.3
	Netherlands	2.4	17.3	25.8	4.6	75.3
	New Zealand	5.3	5.6	0.0	10.2	73.3
	Norway	3.7	m	0.0	7.6	40.2
	Poland	17.2	3.3	0.5	0.0	80.9
	Portugal	7.2	26.6	17.0	2.2	13.8
	Slovak Republic	4.5	5.5	5.0	1.5	58.7
	Slovenia	10.3	3.6	57.3	7.9	48.4
	Spain	2.3	28.7	1.2	11.1	30.5
	Sweden	4.2	3.5	0.0	1.9	23.1
	Switzerland	3.4	17.6	11.7	5.4	57.3
	Turkey	37.0	7.4	33.0	4.1	40.1
	United Kingdom	4.5	2.5	0.2	1.7	69.3
	United States	18.2	9.1	0.0	2.8	67.9

Notes: All data are based on students’ reports, unless otherwise indicated.

1. Based on principals’ reports about school management and the school’s sources of funding.

Information on data for Cyprus: https://oe.cd/cyprus-disclaimer

Source: OECD PISA 2018 Database, Tables V.B1.2.2, V.B1.2.9, V.B1.3.1, V.B1.3.7, V.B1.7.1, V.B1.8.12

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Table V.1 [2/4]. Snapshot of stratification, governance and evaluations

			Countries/economies with values above the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values not statistically different from the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values below the OECD average
		Percentage of students who had not attended pre-primary school or who had attended for less than a year	Percentage of students who had repeated a grade at least once in primary, lower secondary or upper secondary school	Percentage of students who are enrolled in a pre-vocational or vocational programme	Percentage of students in schools whose principal reported that their school groups students by ability in their classes for:
					All subjects	Some subjects
		%	%	%	%	%
Partners
	Albania	12.7	3.3	m	33.1	36.2
	Argentina	3.0	29.2	15.3	7.9	47.2
	Baku (Azerbaijan)	45.1	2.7	0.0	17.4	52.5
	Belarus	4.5	1.4	14.1	4.0	35.6
	Bosnia and Herzegovina	58.9	1.9	65.7	14.6	42.5
	Brazil	9.9	34.1	9.0	10.5	8.6
	Brunei Darussalam	22.5	12.0	5.5	17.1	61.7
	B-S-J-Z (China)	1.3	8.3	18.1	31.7	56.2
	Bulgaria	5.1	4.5	49.1	13.5	36.7
	Costa Rica	9.9	28.1	12.5	58.8	21.3
	Croatia	16.3	1.5	67.3	6.4	34.7
	Cyprus	2.6	3.9	12.2	7.3	39.7
	Dominican Republic	18.9	32.5	12.7	22.6	36.1
	Georgia	19.7	3.3	0.0	3.0	20.9
	Hong Kong (China)	0.9	15.7	0.0	4.0	75.2
	Indonesia	20.4	15.5	19.8	15.3	26.3
	Jordan	11.6	10.8	0.0	41.7	22.8
	Kazakhstan	48.7	3.1	19.6	21.1	55.2
	Kosovo	33.2	4.5	39.8	25.3	46.5
	Lebanon	10.4	34.5	0.0	16.4	38.2
	Macao (China)	0.9	30.1	1.0	5.1	62.4
	Malaysia	3.7	m	10.2	23.6	45.9
	Malta	2.1	5.5	0.0	2.8	68.0
	Moldova	8.2	2.6	3.5	6.7	25.2
	Montenegro	30.3	1.6	64.5	31.1	30.4
	Morocco	27.0	49.3	0.0	19.4	6.1
	North Macedonia	m	3.2	58.6	32.7	39.5
	Panama	15.3	26.5	26.8	14.6	30.6
	Peru	5.0	20.8	0.0	7.6	35.2
	Philippines	11.4	21.1	0.0	21.1	49.8
	Qatar	16.7	17.1	0.0	26.5	52.1
	Romania	2.3	4.5	12.0	6.4	46.2
	Russia	13.9	1.7	3.6	11.7	34.7
	Saudi Arabia	51.7	11.4	0.0	52.9	24.5
	Serbia	2.5	1.4	71.9	17.7	31.5
	Singapore	1.7	4.8	0.0	9.2	70.1
	Chinese Taipei	1.4	0.9	33.7	3.2	42.1
	Thailand	1.2	6.8	22.9	14.4	55.5
	Ukraine	18.5	1.6	28.0	14.9	46.8
	United Arab Emirates	9.1	10.2	3.6	44.1	42.4
	Uruguay	3.3	33.4	8.6	7.9	12.2
	Viet Nam	3.4	4.9	0.0	19.8	56.9

Notes: All data are based on students’ reports, unless otherwise indicated.

1. Based on principals’ reports about school management and the school’s sources of funding.

Information on data for Cyprus: https://oe.cd/cyprus-disclaimer

Source: OECD PISA 2018 Database, Tables V.B1.2.2, V.B1.2.9, V.B1.3.1, V.B1.3.7, V.B1.7.1, V.B1.8.12

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Table V.1 [3/4]. Snapshot of stratification, governance and evaluations

			Countries/economies with values above the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values not statistically different from the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values below the OECD average
		Percentage of students enrolled in:1			Percentage of students in schools whose principal reported that the following arrangements aimed at quality assurance and improvement are in place in the school:
		Government or public schools	Government-dependent private schools	Government-independent private schools	Written specification of student performance standards	Seeking written feedback from students	Teacher mentoring
		%	%	%	%	%	%
OECD
	OECD average	81.9	13.2	4.9	77.9	68.4	77.2
	Australia	57.6	28.2	14.2	92.9	85.7	96.6
	Austria	87.6	10.8	1.6	65.3	90.3	77.9
	Belgium	m	m	m	59.0	51.7	88.2
	Canada	91.8	3.4	4.8	83.2	58.8	85.4
	Chile	34.0	56.2	9.8	83.1	72.8	54.2
	Colombia	81.4	1.4	17.2	95.0	85.3	81.2
	Czech Republic	93.6	5.8	0.6	86.8	62.0	96.4
	Denmark	72.0	21.7	6.3	80.3	60.3	70.0
	Estonia	96.1	2.3	1.6	65.7	85.4	95.0
	Finland	95.9	4.1	0.0	64.6	72.6	70.0
	France	80.0	11.7	8.3	46.9	17.9	73.9
	Germany	96.1	3.4	0.6	68.2	53.0	27.9
	Greece	94.9	1.4	3.7	45.9	41.2	79.4
	Hungary	79.4	19.3	1.2	93.7	60.5	80.8
	Iceland	99.2	0.8	0.0	91.5	38.0	36.2
	Ireland	m	m	m	63.0	59.6	86.1
	Israel	m	m	m	77.2	67.4	97.2
	Italy	96.4	1.7	1.9	63.2	44.5	36.9
	Japan	66.3	3.6	30.1	64.5	85.1	86.1
	Korea	60.6	35.5	3.9	98.1	86.1	94.9
	Latvia	98.5	0.8	0.7	84.7	90.1	82.2
	Lithuania	95.8	3.0	1.2	82.9	74.7	57.5
	Luxembourg	82.3	15.1	2.6	62.3	9.3	59.7
	Mexico	87.9	4.2	7.9	91.6	75.3	64.2
	Netherlands	36.5	63.4	0.1	70.1	87.9	93.9
	New Zealand	94.2	0.0	5.8	91.0	97.1	96.9
	Norway	w	w	w	88.5	66.2	89.0
	Poland	95.5	3.6	0.9	76.3	77.6	93.7
	Portugal	86.6	8.8	4.6	77.4	70.1	78.0
	Slovak Republic	87.7	11.8	0.5	87.8	68.3	77.5
	Slovenia	97.5	2.5	0.0	94.1	81.4	82.9
	Spain	67.7	27.0	5.3	72.8	74.0	33.9
	Sweden	80.7	19.2	0.1	97.2	79.9	89.8
	Switzerland	95.5	0.7	3.8	53.1	70.4	79.1
	Turkey	87.9	1.1	11.0	83.2	87.9	73.0
	United Kingdom	34.0	59.8	6.2	90.4	81.2	96.9
	United States	93.0	2.2	4.8	89.9	63.4	93.4

Notes: All data are based on students’ reports, unless otherwise indicated.

1. Based on principals’ reports about school management and the school’s sources of funding.

Information on data for Cyprus: https://oe.cd/cyprus-disclaimer

Source: OECD PISA 2018 Database, Tables V.B1.2.2, V.B1.2.9, V.B1.3.1, V.B1.3.7, V.B1.7.1, V.B1.8.12

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Table V.1 [4/4]. Snapshot of stratification, governance and evaluations

			Countries/economies with values above the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values not statistically different from the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values below the OECD average
		Percentage of students enrolled in:1			Percentage of students in schools whose principal reported that the following arrangements aimed at quality assurance and improvement are in place in the school:
		Government or public schools	Government-dependent private schools	Government-independent private schools	Written specification of student performance standards	Seeking written feedback from students	Teacher mentoring
		%	%	%	%	%	%
Partners
	Albania	88.8	1.5	9.7	99.6	95.3	100.0
	Argentina	68.4	24.8	6.8	73.6	47.6	63.2
	Baku (Azerbaijan)	99.5	0.3	0.2	92.5	85.7	84.1
	Belarus	99.6	0.0	0.4	90.8	76.8	99.8
	Bosnia and Herzegovina	99.0	0.3	0.7	73.3	60.5	94.1
	Brazil	85.0	4.1	10.9	89.1	71.6	91.2
	Brunei Darussalam	84.3	3.5	12.1	94.2	86.3	98.6
	B-S-J-Z (China)	85.7	0.3	14.0	90.2	97.2	97.4
	Bulgaria	99.0	0.0	1.0	84.8	70.6	74.3
	Costa Rica	86.2	0.7	13.1	81.1	71.3	70.3
	Croatia	97.6	1.5	0.9	76.4	68.1	95.4
	Cyprus	83.3	0.0	16.7	82.6	45.8	94.6
	Dominican Republic	83.1	6.0	10.9	89.3	93.6	81.2
	Georgia	89.3	1.1	9.5	89.3	85.5	63.7
	Hong Kong (China)	8.6	91.1	0.3	83.5	81.6	83.3
	Indonesia	53.5	30.0	16.6	92.3	92.2	98.7
	Jordan	78.9	1.4	19.6	95.9	89.0	99.3
	Kazakhstan	91.7	2.3	6.0	99.1	93.5	99.3
	Kosovo	99.2	0.0	0.8	89.5	84.9	95.2
	Lebanon	48.4	31.2	20.4	89.0	63.8	85.6
	Macao (China)	5.7	85.3	9.0	98.0	79.3	95.6
	Malaysia	93.8	0.5	5.7	98.3	84.5	98.9
	Malta	54.9	31.4	13.7	73.2	62.2	89.6
	Moldova	99.3	0.0	0.7	91.4	90.5	96.8
	Montenegro	99.8	0.0	0.2	94.1	69.2	98.5
	Morocco	92.7	3.0	4.3	81.8	64.4	93.9
	North Macedonia	98.7	0.6	0.7	83.4	91.4	98.6
	Panama	81.9	7.2	10.8	91.3	88.7	97.7
	Peru	75.2	0.3	24.6	90.5	65.5	97.9
	Philippines	82.3	10.6	7.1	99.4	89.7	100.0
	Qatar	57.3	1.5	41.2	98.6	96.0	98.6
	Romania	98.0	1.4	0.7	91.7	92.6	88.0
	Russia	100.0	0.0	0.0	98.5	73.8	100.0
	Saudi Arabia	86.7	5.8	7.5	96.4	94.6	100.0
	Serbia	96.8	0.0	3.2	94.6	75.2	95.4
	Singapore	90.5	3.0	6.6	90.7	92.9	99.5
	Chinese Taipei	68.4	14.0	17.6	91.9	78.2	82.2
	Thailand	84.0	8.5	7.4	98.2	78.1	98.6
	Ukraine	99.2	0.4	0.4	94.0	61.0	95.4
	United Arab Emirates	38.0	23.8	38.2	99.3	90.0	96.2
	Uruguay	84.1	0.5	15.3	62.7	52.3	71.0
	Viet Nam	95.0	1.0	4.0	94.8	95.1	96.1

Notes: All data are based on students’ reports, unless otherwise indicated.

1. Based on principals’ reports about school management and the school’s sources of funding.

Information on data for Cyprus: https://oe.cd/cyprus-disclaimer

Source: OECD PISA 2018 Database, Tables V.B1.2.2, V.B1.2.9, V.B1.3.1, V.B1.3.7, V.B1.7.1, V.B1.8.12

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Table V.2 [1/4]. Snapshot of educational resources

			Countries/economies with values above the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values not statistically different from the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values below the OECD average
		Percentage of students in schools whose principal reported that the school’s capacity to provide instruction is hindered to some extent or a lot by the following factors:		Percentage of students in schools whose principal agreed or strongly agreed with the following statements:		Percentage of students in schools whose principal reported that their school has a specific programme to prepare students for responsible Internet behaviour
		A lack of teaching staff	A lack of assisting staff	The school’s Internet bandwidth or speed is sufficient	An effective online learning support platform is available
		%	%	%	%	%
OECD
	OECD average	27.1	32.8	67.5	54.1	59.5
	Australia	17.0	12.4	72.4	75.9	78.3
	Austria	11.9	66.0	67.9	67.3	70.1
	Belgium	43.5	32.8	69.3	46.9	54.2
	Canada	19.4	27.9	81.4	65.1	48.9
	Chile	12.6	21.5	57.7	38.7	23.6
	Colombia	30.6	58.8	25.2	36.2	44.4
	Czech Republic	35.2	33.4	71.6	57.0	45.9
	Denmark	5.3	13.2	89.9	90.9	47.9
	Estonia	43.6	37.3	74.8	66.5	59.0
	Finland	7.3	38.0	72.9	80.0	50.5
	France	17.1	31.7	56.6	35.2	69.9
	Germany	56.9	48.8	31.7	32.7	74.1
	Greece	26.3	64.4	62.7	34.2	31.4
	Hungary	33.7	44.3	48.0	35.4	52.3
	Iceland	9.9	17.7	78.1	42.8	60.4
	Ireland	44.8	26.0	75.9	45.4	69.3
	Israel	37.6	35.9	45.6	68.2	76.7
	Italy	22.7	48.8	60.4	46.3	53.2
	Japan	52.8	31.7	45.2	24.0	54.2
	Korea	32.6	55.9	83.4	55.8	70.6
	Latvia	28.2	17.3	79.1	51.3	46.3
	Lithuania	7.2	6.7	91.3	66.8	30.6
	Luxembourg	75.3	55.0	78.8	23.9	79.9
	Mexico	25.3	35.2	31.7	33.8	37.4
	Netherlands	35.7	9.9	87.1	50.4	63.8
	New Zealand	37.2	19.4	87.9	76.5	75.6
	Norway	11.3	7.9	79.9	76.1	93.9
	Poland	2.6	8.7	58.9	34.7	82.6
	Portugal	31.8	67.7	32.0	34.9	62.2
	Slovak Republic	11.4	29.1	61.0	41.5	61.2
	Slovenia	22.8	25.5	90.0	77.4	60.6
	Spain	42.7	59.4	52.9	51.5	55.6
	Sweden	30.1	29.2	89.1	80.0	47.8
	Switzerland	11.0	11.5	73.8	48.5	63.7
	Turkey	14.7	35.6	76.6	65.5	57.1
	United Kingdom	28.1	21.5	75.2	65.9	95.1
	United States	25.8	26.8	82.4	77.1	54.5

Information on data for Cyprus: https://oe.cd/cyprus-disclaimer

Source: OECD PISA 2018 Database, Tables V.B1.4.2, V.B1.5.15, V.B1.5.18, V.B1.6.1

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Table V.2 [2/4]. Snapshot of educational resources

			Countries/economies with values above the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values not statistically different from the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values below the OECD average
		Percentage of students in schools whose principal reported that the school’s capacity to provide instruction is hindered to some extent or a lot by the following factors:		Percentage of students in schools whose principal agreed or strongly agreed with the following statements:		Percentage of students in schools whose principal reported that their school has a specific programme to prepare students for responsible Internet behaviour
		A lack of teaching staff	A lack of assisting staff	The school’s Internet bandwidth or speed is sufficient	An effective online learning support platform is available
		%	%	%	%	%
Partners
	Albania	3.9	13.6	66.5	32.2	73.0
	Argentina	25.9	35.6	21.7	18.9	30.7
	Baku (Azerbaijan)	42.8	28.5	52.3	41.3	44.0
	Belarus	9.6	8.8	79.8	27.4	68.0
	Bosnia and Herzegovina	4.6	15.3	49.7	33.6	27.3
	Brazil	17.6	34.1	26.0	35.0	16.3
	Brunei Darussalam	15.0	27.5	32.2	34.4	57.8
	B-S-J-Z (China)	41.4	26.3	95.8	94.6	91.7
	Bulgaria	8.0	4.3	79.4	40.4	72.4
	Costa Rica	39.9	47.5	34.3	20.0	27.2
	Croatia	18.3	45.1	69.9	48.6	42.2
	Cyprus	7.3	25.7	71.3	44.5	61.4
	Dominican Republic	27.6	31.7	44.4	46.7	58.5
	Georgia	4.6	29.4	72.2	60.4	54.3
	Hong Kong (China)	23.7	40.1	86.8	67.4	83.6
	Indonesia	42.4	41.7	79.6	59.1	58.6
	Jordan	40.9	50.4	52.0	43.4	60.8
	Kazakhstan	29.3	14.0	64.5	69.9	68.7
	Kosovo	19.1	29.1	28.7	22.0	25.3
	Lebanon	15.1	26.3	46.6	35.2	44.2
	Macao (China)	12.0	11.7	68.0	68.8	80.5
	Malaysia	7.5	12.7	36.0	68.2	82.5
	Malta	16.4	24.2	61.3	58.5	77.2
	Moldova	28.7	22.9	60.3	40.5	58.5
	Montenegro	1.7	7.5	75.2	49.3	33.8
	Morocco	36.9	74.1	25.8	27.8	20.5
	North Macedonia	3.6	31.0	31.6	24.5	23.2
	Panama	14.8	53.7	25.2	23.9	36.2
	Peru	16.5	41.7	26.9	24.0	34.2
	Philippines	19.5	24.1	41.2	54.3	59.1
	Qatar	11.4	11.7	78.9	80.4	86.3
	Romania	8.8	20.2	76.2	31.3	54.1
	Russia	43.1	22.8	76.7	42.8	54.8
	Saudi Arabia	49.5	47.6	43.8	48.6	66.4
	Serbia	2.3	20.8	61.0	40.0	54.5
	Singapore	5.3	7.2	90.3	95.8	95.4
	Chinese Taipei	19.6	12.9	82.0	76.7	75.0
	Thailand	37.7	33.6	69.3	76.8	90.2
	Ukraine	19.6	24.8	58.7	64.5	77.6
	United Arab Emirates	27.7	30.2	79.8	71.6	80.4
	Uruguay	28.6	53.2	32.8	47.4	27.9
	Viet Nam	23.8	30.9	79.7	43.4	62.9

Information on data for Cyprus: https://oe.cd/cyprus-disclaimer

Source: OECD PISA 2018 Database, Tables V.B1.4.2, V.B1.5.15, V.B1.5.18, V.B1.6.1

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Table V.2 [3/4]. Snapshot of educational resources

			Countries/economies with values above the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values not statistically different from the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values below the OECD average
		Learning time per week (as reported by students) in:
		Regular language-of-instruction lessons	Regular mathematics lessons	Regular science lessons	Foreign language lessons
		Hours	Hours	Hours	Hours
OECD
	OECD average	3.7	3.7	3.4	3.6
	Australia	3.9	3.9	3.5	1.2
	Austria	2.6	2.6	3.5	3.6
	Belgium	3.6	3.5	3.1	4.7
	Canada	5.4	5.2	5.1	2.9
	Chile	6.8	7.3	5.8	4.3
	Colombia	3.7	4.0	3.3	3.2
	Czech Republic	3.1	3.2	4.0	3.9
	Denmark	5.8	4.5	3.7	4.8
	Estonia	3.1	3.5	3.6	4.0
	Finland	2.5	2.8	2.5	3.8
	France	3.7	3.6	2.8	4.5
	Germany	3.3	3.4	3.7	4.4
	Greece	2.8	3.4	3.6	1.8
	Hungary	2.8	2.5	2.9	4.7
	Iceland	4.1	4.1	2.4	4.7
	Ireland	3.1	3.2	2.4	2.5
	Israel	3.3	4.2	3.4	3.8
	Italy	4.6	3.8	2.3	3.8
	Japan	3.6	4.1	2.9	4.0
	Korea	3.1	3.0	3.0	3.2
	Latvia	2.7	3.8	4.0	3.7
	Lithuania	3.5	3.0	4.4	3.7
	Luxembourg	3.5	3.5	3.2	6.2
	Mexico	3.9	4.0	3.9	2.9
	Netherlands	2.8	2.6	4.4	3.8
	New Zealand	4.1	4.0	4.1	1.2
	Norway	3.8	3.3	2.4	2.8
	Poland	3.8	3.6	2.9	3.6
	Portugal	4.1	4.5	3.5	3.8
	Slovak Republic	3.4	3.2	2.6	4.3
	Slovenia	3.0	2.8	3.3	3.0
	Spain	3.6	3.8	3.2	3.9
	Sweden	3.1	3.3	3.1	3.8
	Switzerland	3.3	3.4	2.5	4.2
	Turkey	3.5	3.9	3.4	3.2
	United Kingdom	4.3	4.2	5.1	1.7
	United States	4.2	4.1	4.1	2.9

Information on data for Cyprus: https://oe.cd/cyprus-disclaimer

Source: OECD PISA 2018 Database, Tables V.B1.4.2, V.B1.5.15, V.B1.5.18, V.B1.6.1

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Table V.2 [4/4]. Snapshot of educational resources

			Countries/economies with values above the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values not statistically different from the OECD average
			Countries/economies with values below the OECD average
		Learning time per week (as reported by students) in:
		Regular language-of-instruction lessons	Regular mathematics lessons	Regular science lessons	Foreign language lessons
		Hours	Hours	Hours	Hours
Partners
	Albania	2.9	3.2	4.9	3.3
	Argentina	3.0	3.2	3.4	2.4
	Baku (Azerbaijan)	3.4	4.7	5.7	3.3
	Belarus	2.3	3.3	3.7	2.6
	Bosnia and Herzegovina	2.6	2.6	2.8	2.6
	Brazil	3.8	3.8	2.9	1.8
	Brunei Darussalam	3.4	3.7	4.5	1.6
	B-S-J-Z (China)	4.6	5.0	5.5	4.6
	Bulgaria	2.9	2.7	4.9	4.2
	Costa Rica	4.0	4.3	4.7	5.4
	Croatia	2.9	2.6	3.4	2.6
	Cyprus	4.3	3.8	3.8	3.2
	Dominican Republic	4.4	4.4	4.1	3.7
	Georgia	4.0	3.9	3.0	2.7
	Hong Kong (China)	5.1	4.7	4.0	4.2
	Indonesia	4.0	4.2	3.7	3.5
	Jordan	4.4	3.8	4.2	3.5
	Kazakhstan	2.8	3.4	2.7	2.2
	Kosovo	2.9	2.5	3.0	2.3
	Lebanon	m	m	m	m
	Macao (China)	4.2	4.4	3.8	3.9
	Malaysia	4.3	4.0	4.4	1.7
	Malta	4.2	4.0	3.8	2.9
	Moldova	3.9	3.2	3.9	3.0
	Montenegro	2.8	2.6	1.7	2.7
	Morocco	3.9	5.8	3.7	4.9
	North Macedonia	m	m	m	m
	Panama	3.8	4.0	3.7	3.5
	Peru	5.4	6.6	4.6	2.9
	Philippines	5.2	5.2	5.2	2.4
	Qatar	4.5	4.8	5.3	3.7
	Romania	3.0	2.7	3.4	2.7
	Russia	2.6	4.0	4.4	2.5
	Saudi Arabia	3.9	3.6	3.5	3.3
	Serbia	2.7	2.6	3.5	2.3
	Singapore	4.4	5.2	5.4	4.6
	Chinese Taipei	4.2	3.9	3.1	3.9
	Thailand	2.9	3.8	4.3	3.9
	Ukraine	4.3	3.3	4.0	2.8
	United Arab Emirates	4.5	5.1	5.0	3.7
	Uruguay	2.6	2.8	2.8	2.2
	Viet Nam	3.1	3.3	5.4	2.7

Information on data for Cyprus: https://oe.cd/cyprus-disclaimer

Source: OECD PISA 2018 Database, Tables V.B1.4.2, V.B1.5.15, V.B1.5.18, V.B1.6.1

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