This chapter examines the skills that underpin the development of the agri-food sector in the 15 West African countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. It provides an overview of levels of education, employment and skills development in the region, followed by a case study on the skills required in the agri-food sector. It analyses opportunities for the West African agri-food sector and constraints affecting it, and assesses the extent to which workers’ skills align with those needed by sector. The chapter concludes with policy recommendations to align skill supply and demand, based on improvements in three areas: development of training strategies, co-operation between research organisations and companies, and funding programmes focused on targeted skills.
Africa's Development Dynamics 2024
Chapter 7. Skills for agri-food in West Africa
Abstract
In Brief
Improving education and training systems would offer West Africa enormous opportunities, but the region has major skills shortages. In 2020, the average length of schooling was 5.5 years, below the continental average of 6.7 years. Twenty-three per cent of young people in the region had completed secondary or tertiary education, but only 9% of secondary school students were undertaking technical or vocational education and training (TVET).
The agri-food sector is a major lever for productive transformation in West Africa. By the end of 2020, the agricultural sector alone accounted for around 25% of the region’s gross domestic product (GDP) and 45% of employment. West Africa is facing climate-related and technological challenges that call for technical and soft skills, as well as investment in agri-food research. The lack of technical skills and awareness of good conservation practices among farmers, processors and traders results in post-harvest losses of 24% in the region, the highest figure on the continent.
Enhanced skills across the primary, secondary and tertiary segments of the agri-food sector would promote food self-sufficiency and the growth of the agri-food sector. Political decision makers could prioritise three key lines of action: i) developing national sectoral professionalisation plans and programmes that promote local processing models and encourage public–private partnerships; ii) institutionalising co-operation agreements between regional research organisations and companies in the agri-food sector; and iii) increasing financing of skills development programmes to respond to global challenges, particularly climate change.
Skills for agri-food sector in West Africa (infographic)
West Africa regional profile
Figure 7.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending in West Africa, 2000-22
Note: Vulnerable employment includes formal and informal self-employed (own-account) workers and contributing family members but excludes informal salaried employees. As an approximation of informal employment, it is used here to show long-term trends, as time series data on informal employment is missing for most African countries. Labour productivity is measured as the constant gross domestic product (GDP) in 2017 international USD at purchasing power parity (PPP) prices, divided by the population of employed people in thousands.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org; World Bank (2024[2]), World Development Indicators (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators; and IMF (2023[3]), World Economic Outlook (database), https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO.
Figure 7.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation in West Africa, 2021
Note: : “Technicians” include associate professionals; “Skilled elementary occupations” include skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers, and elementary occupations; and “Operators and assemblers” include plant and machine operators and assemblers.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org.
West African countries have a major shortage of skills
Despite the progress made in terms of access, the level and quality of education remain low overall in the region. In 2020, the average number of years of schooling was 5.5 years in West Africa, below the average for the continent (6.7 years), Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) (9.2 years), and developing Asia (8.4 years). Nevertheless, there are considerable differences in the average years of schooling adjusted for learning quality. While the learning-adjusted years of schooling is six years in Ghana and Togo, it is less than three years in Liberia, Mali and Niger (Figure 7.3). As a result, less than a third of primary school leavers have basic reading skills. Similarly, less than 30% of teenagers starting secondary school achieve a satisfactory reading level and less than 15% have a satisfactory level in mathematics (Figure 7.4). Significant differences exist between urban and rural areas, though gender gaps are less pronounced.
Figure 7.3. Average years of schooling and learning-adjusted years of schooling in West Africa, 2020
Note: LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean. Learning-adjusted years of schooling merge the quantity and quality of education into one metric, reflecting that similar durations of schooling can yield different learning outcomes. See Filmer et al. (2020[4]) for a detailed methodology.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2023[5]), Education Statistics (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/education-statistics-%5E-all-indicators.
Figure 7.4. Percentage of adolescents in lower secondary school achieving proficiency in reading and mathematics in West Africa, most recent year observed (2013-22)
Source: Authors’ calculations based on UNESCO (2023[6]), World Inequality Database on Education (database), https://www.education-inequalities.org/.
In West Africa, the performance of the education system is determined by socio-economic factors such as parental involvement, school support and literacy. Research by the CONFEMEN Programme for the Analysis of Educational Systems (PASEC), conducted by the Conference of Ministers of Education of French speaking countries (CONFEMEN) in several African countries, including seven in West Africa,1 found that performance in reading and mathematics is better among students who receive help at home. High-performing children have access to books and live with literate parents or in the care of institutions that support school learning, which improves the quality of education (PASEC, 2020[7]).
Poor educational performance is compounded by limited uptake of vocational programmes. Although the number of young people in the region completing secondary or tertiary education rose from 13% to 23% between 2000 and 2020, this has not translated into greater uptake of vocational training (AUC/OECD, 2021[8]). On average, only 9% of secondary school students are enrolled in vocational programmes, ranging from 47% in Gambia to less than 3% in Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde and Ghana (UNESCO, 2023[6]).
Most jobs remain low-skilled, with gaps between men and women. Around 18% of workers in West Africa are skilled, compared with around 22% for the continent as a whole (Figure 7.5). Côte d’Ivoire (29%) and Ghana (27%), which have more-developed manufacturing sectors, employ the highest share of skilled workers in the region. There are marked differences in access to employment between urban and rural workers, as well as between men and women. The share of workers in skilled jobs is relatively higher in urban areas, reflecting the presence of factories in cities; the unskilled workforce is concentrated in rural areas, and is mainly employed in agriculture. In West Africa, 26% of men work in skilled jobs, compared with 14% of women. This can be explained by inequalities in access to education, particularly higher education, and by social norms that disadvantage women, namely discrimination within families, physical violence, restricted access to productive and financial resources, and attacks on civil liberties (OECD Development Centre, 2022[9]; BAfD/ECA, 2020[10]).
Figure 7.5. Percentage of workers in skilled occupations in West Africa, by gender and place of residence, 2019 or latest year available
Note: Data are drawn from nationally representative demographic and health surveys (DHS) collected between 2010 and 2019. Occupational categories were divided into skilled and unskilled occupations as follows: skilled occupations include professional, technical, managerial, clerical and skilled manual work; unskilled occupations include sales, agriculture, household and domestic work, services and unskilled manual labour.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on USAID/DHS (2023[11]), Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) (database), https://dhsprogram.com/.
The majority of workers do not have the level of education required for their occupation. On average, 78% of workers in West Africa are employed in jobs for which they are not adequately qualified (Figure 7.6). This situation is more common among women and self-employed workers. The majority of workers (72%) do not have the level of education required for their occupation. The rate varies across the region: it stands at 37% in Cabo Verde and 45% in Ghana, but exceeds 90% in Burkina Faso and Mali. Only a small proportion of workers (between 4% and 11%) have a higher level of education than required for their occupation.
Figure 7.6. Percentage of workers who have a higher or lower level of education than required for their occupation in West Africa, 2022 or latest year available
Note: Mismatches are assessed using the normative approach, by comparing the educational requirements for each occupational group set out in the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) with the educational level of each person with that occupation. Calculations are based on data available from national labour force statistics or other representative household surveys with an employment component.
Source: Compiled by the authors based on ILOSTAT (2023[12]), ILO Education and Mismatch Indicators, https://ilostat.ilo.org/resources/concepts-and-definitions/description-education-and-mismatch-indicators/.
The shortage of technical skills can be partly explained by the low capacity of the education system. In West Africa, the education system is under-resourced both in terms of human resources and teaching materials making it unable to produce the skilled workforce required to grow the industrial sector. For example, in West Africa, research and development (R&D) expenditure as a percentage of GDP was 0.23% between 2010 and 2022, compared with around 2.2% worldwide. As a result, West Africa has just 102 researchers per million inhabitants, compared with a global rate of 1 392 (Figure 7.7). The lack of skilled workers means that most workers are employed in jobs for which they do not have the required skills, reducing sectorial productivity.
Figure 7.7. R&D expenditure (as a percentage of GDP) and number of R&D researchers per million inhabitants, average 2010–22
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2023[13]), UIS.Stat (database), http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx.
Digital skills can help transform economies, but they are developing unevenly across the region. The percentage of respondents able to use a mobile money account without the help of a third party ranges from over 45% in Ghana to less than 15% in Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mali and Sierra Leone (Figure 7.8). The low penetration of digital skills reflects the limited capacity of West African countries to adopt technologies that could strengthen the skills needed to develop the agri-food sector.
Figure 7.8. Percentage of respondents able to use a mobile bank account without the help of a third party in West Africa
Source: Demirgüç-Kunt et al. (2022[14]), The Global Findex Database 2021 (database), https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1897-4.
The region has high levels of internal migration, but skilled workers are migrating outside the continent. Low- or semi-skilled people – with secondary or lower education – mainly migrate within the region. Conversely, the majority of skilled workers – with tertiary or higher levels of education, and particularly those from Cabo Verde – mainly migrate to destinations outside the continent (Figure 7.9).
Figure 7.9. Migrants by level of education, origin and destination (West Africa, 2020)
Note: Migrants per 1 000 inhabitants. Negative numbers represent emigration. “Low-educated” refers to individuals with secondary or lower education. “High-educated” refers to those with tertiary or higher education.
Source: World Bank (2023[15]), Global Bilateral Migration (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/global-bilateral-migration.
The agri-food sector: A major lever for productive transformation in West Africa
In West Africa, the agri-food sector is of strategic importance for the economic development of countries. More than 50% of the West African population lives in rural areas, and 65% of the active population works in the agricultural sector (AUC/OECD, 2022[16]). At the end of 2020, the sector accounted for around 25% of the region’s GDP and 45% of employment. It is expected to contribute USD 430 billion and provide 131 million jobs by 2030. Jobs in the food economy are mainly concentrated in agriculture (78%) and are mainly found in rural areas (81%), including 15% in food processing, trade and out-of-home consumption, with this figure reaching 60% in urban areas (Allen, Heinrigs and Heo, 2018[17]). Developing the skills needed to grow the agri-food sector could help the region to better integrate value chains, and take greater advantage of the establishment of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).
West Africa is a world leader in the production of several agricultural and food products, but it depends on imports for staple foods. In 2019, the region’s share of global production of fonio, shea nuts, yams and cocoa beans was between 66% and 100% (AUC/OECD, 2022[16]), while between five and nine West African countries regularly rank among the world’s top 20 producers of a dozen agricultural products (AUC/OECD, 2019[18]) (Table 7.1). Local stakeholders also have a strong foundation in the processing of vegetable oils, cassava by-products, sugar cane and tropical fruits. However, despite the wide range of agricultural products grown, West Africa faces major shortages of commodities such as rice (it is the continent’s leading importer at 20 million tonnes/year), maize (in 2022 exports reached USD 9.87 million, while imports totaled USD 208.26 million) and vegetable oils (including soybean and sunflower, despite significant palm oil production).
Table 7.1. West Africa’s highest agri-food product exports, by country 2018-22
Note: Products correspond to the four-digit code under the Harmonized System nomenclature.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on Gaulier and Zignago (2023[19]), BACI (database), www.cepii.fr/cepii/fr/bdd_modele/presentation.asp?id=37.
The region is facing major challenges that are holding back the expansion and modernisation of agriculture, such as climatic conditions and small-scale production models. High temperatures and humidity can make fruit, vegetables and meat deteriorate faster. However, farmers and agri-food processors often have limited access to modern preservation technologies (e.g. refrigeration, freezing, drying, irradiation processing), which reduces agricultural productivity. The lack of skills and awareness of good preservation practices among farmers, processors and traders results in post-harvest losses of 23.6%, the highest rate on the continent (FAOSTAT, 2023[20]). In addition, farmers (the majority of whom run small family operations) play a crucial role in the region’s food security but have insufficient access to adequate infrastructure, agricultural extension services, financing, agricultural inputs and foreign markets (Box 7.1). Less than 10% of potentially irrigable land is effectively irrigated – due in part to the under-utilisation of underground water resources – limiting the region’s agricultural potential (Gadelle, 2005[21]).
Box 7.1. Developing strategic value chains to boost local industry
Foreign competition remains a major challenge for the local agri-food industry, constraining its ability to develop the skills it needs to grow. Domestic industries, which have not yet reached the efficiency level of foreign industries, have no access to foreign markets due to their weak product development and inability to comply with various regulatory, sanitary and plant health standards. Between 2016 and 2020, West African countries had to import nearly USD 60 billion worth of food products, of which around 67% were semi-processed or processed products (Badiane, Collins and Glatzel, 2022[22]). Partnerships with multinationals will facilitate the emergence of local agri-food industries and provide access to the technical expertise needed to compete with foreign industries, allowing them to upgrade and develop skills.
An increasing number of training initiatives meets the demands of specific value chains. A meeting on agri-food value chains in October 2023 highlighted the key challenges affecting the processing of infant formula – of which imports into Africa are expected to exceed USD 1.1 billion by 2026 (ITC/AU/EU, 2022[23]) – namely safety, management and measuring potential contaminants. For its part, Danone highlighted positive results in the dairy sector, where 10 000 West African farmers have already been trained on irrigation techniques to help them manage water stress. The goal is to reach 100 000 farmers soon (OECD/AUC/AUDA-NEPAD/EC, 2023[24]).
Closing the agri-food skill-gap could boost the sector’s productivity and resilience
A range of skills will be needed across the primary, secondary and tertiary segments to develop the agri-food sector in West Africa. The agri-food sector encompasses a wide range of activities requiring specific skills (Table 7.2). Skilled workers are needed in food safety management and control, process and product quality management and assurance, efficient resource use and organisation. Strategic planning, insight and thinking skills are the most sought-after (Ramalho Ribeiro et al., 2023[25]).
Table 7.2. Skills needed for the development of the agri-food sector
Source: Produced by the authors.
There is a shortage of agricultural product processing skills, usually acquired through informal learning. The rudimentary technologies used by stakeholders in this sector severely limit their efficiency and capacity to innovate. Conversely, multinationals operating in the food processing sector are equipped with modern skills that allow them to take advantage of new, modern and more efficient technologies (Aryeetey, Twumasi Baffour and Ebo Turkson, 2021[26]).
Technical, resource management and soft skills are crucial to the growth of the agri-food sector. In Ghana, the supply of basic skills meets the demand from companies in the sector, but there are major shortages of technical and system management skills2 (Aryeetey, Twumasi Baffour and Ebo Turkson, 2021[26]). In Senegal, skills level required by several occupations far exceeds the current supply, with a gap ranging from seven to nine years of schooling – a significant skills shortage (Figure 7.10). Food technicians need the widest possible range of skills, including basic, system management and problem-solving skills (Aly Mbaye et al., 2021[27]). Other occupations, such as accountants and electrical engineers, have similar requirements, particularly with regard to problem-solving in the context of food processing.
Figure 7.10. Professional skills deficits in selected agri-food occupations
Source: Produced by the authors based on Aly Mbaye et al. (2021[27]), Employment Creation Potential, Labor Skills Requirements, and Skill Gaps for Young People: A Senegal Case Study, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/21.04.02-Senegal-IWOSS_FINAL.pdf.
The growth of the agri-food industry requires investment in research and development (R&D) to strengthen technical skills
Poor assimilation of technical skills, limited investment in R&D, and gaps in basic knowledge have worsened the productivity gap in West Africa’s agricultural sector. Despite improvements, agricultural sector productivity remains relatively low. The widening productivity gap is a symptom of an under-skilled workforce. The productivity gap between West Africa and European and Central Asian countries is widening in both the primary and secondary segments, highlighting the scale of the efforts required to develop a competitive agri-food sector (Figure 7.11).
Figure 7.11. Productivity gap between ECOWAS countries and European and Central Asian countries in agriculture and industry (difference in value added per worker)
Source: World Bank (2024[2]), World Development Indicators (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators.
There is a marked shortage of technical skills in West Africa in the field of agri-food research. The number of food science and nutrition researchers is low in several countries, particularly Cabo Verde, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Senegal and Togo (Figure 7.12). The percentage of total full-time equivalent researchers in food science and nutrition in these countries is below the regional average (3.6%). Nigeria and Ghana are notable exceptions, with a relatively more developed agri-food sector.
Figure 7.12. Researchers in food science and nutrition, latest year available (2014-16)
Note: “Total” indicates the total number of researchers specialising in food science and nutrition. “Percentage of total” indicates the proportion of researchers specialising in food science and nutrition among agricultural researchers.
Source: IFPRI (2024[28]), Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators (ASTI) (database), https://www.asti.cgiar.org/.
Regional differences in the number of veterinary medicine researchers highlight the need for investment in skills and regional collaboration. In West Africa, veterinary medicine researchers account for around 2.6% of agricultural researchers, below the average for Africa as a whole (3.7%), with significant differences across West African countries (Figure 7.13). Initiatives to increase the number of researchers and promote regional collaboration in this specific field are essential to improve animal health, productivity, and food security.
Figure 7.13. Researchers in veterinary medicine, latest year available (2014–16)
Note: The “Africa” category covers 30 African countries. “Total” indicates the total number of researchers specialising in veterinary medicine. “Percentage of total” indicates the proportion of researchers specialising in veterinary medicine among agricultural researchers.
Source: IFPRI (2024[28]), Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators (ASTI) (database), https://www.asti.cgiar.org/.
Developing adaptability skills is essential to meet the challenges facing the agricultural sector, such as technological transformations, international standards and climate change
Demand for agri-food processing and logistics skills is growing in West Africa. The presence of supermarkets in agri-food value chains is increasing. This is standardising production, imposing strict quality standards (AUC/OECD, 2022[16]) and creating new challenges in terms of skills. Education policies need to adapt to these changes if the West African agri-food sector is to remain competitive and continue to comply with regulations. It will be crucial to maintain the focus on secondary education and technical training to meet the growing demand for skills. Governments can better equip the workforce to adapt to changing markets by investing in education and training.
Compliance with international rules and standards requires specific skill sets. Oversight of mandatory standards (monitoring, traceability and quality assurance systems) is essential to developing and scaling up agri-food production. Measuring quality through sampling, microbiological and biochemical analysis, environmental testing, and caloric and nutritional content requires investment in equipment and skilled personnel. To succeed, the sector will need to standardise policies, introduce new regulations, regional procedures and bodies, and strengthen the technical skills needed to comply with these standards. Within the framework of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), ECOWAS and the AfCFTA, standards mainly concern food, human and plant health.
Continuous learning and green skills are needed to adapt farming practices to climate change. In West Africa, agricultural productivity is heavily affected by climate change. Droughts, excessive rainfall and floods are already impacting agricultural productivity and, consequently, the food security of rural households. Although around 51% of people surveyed in 13 West African countries have heard of climate change, this figure drops to 42% for people with no education, and to 47% for rural inhabitants, compared with 55% for urban inhabitants (Afrobarometer, 2023[29]). Climate change requires continuous learning and specific skills to implement different adaptation strategies, such as changing crop varieties, sowing dates, crop density and irrigation, fertiliser management (Sultan and Gaetani, 2016[30]) and organic farming techniques (Box 7.2). Climate-resilient farming techniques entail two additional challenges in that they require strong management skills and have high startup costs to equip specialised plantations (Abegunde, Sibanda and Obi, 2019[31]).
Box 7.2. Organic farming in West Africa
West Africa has great potential to develop organic farming. Despite the fact that only 0.23% of farmland was used for organic farming in 2021, this represented a 543% increase compared with 2012. Given the high international demand for organic products, developing organic farming would enable West Africa to increase its exports to higher-income regions (FiBL, 2023[32]). However, export-oriented programmes should be designed such that they do not undermine the region’s food security (Aïhounton and Henningsen, 2024[33]).
Organic farming helps farmers adapt to environmental challenges. Organic farming methods allow soil and water resources to be used more sustainably. The most-exported organic agricultural products, in particular soybeans, have adapted to global warming (FiBL, 2023[32]; De Bon et al., 2018[34]).
The development of organic farming must be accompanied by a change in skill sets. This type of farming relies on more labour-intensive and relatively less capital-intensive farming methods. It is, therefore, relatively well suited to the West African context. Nonetheless, advanced agronomy skills are needed to achieve sufficient yields without resorting to chemical fertilisers (Agricultural Recruitment Specialists, 2024[35]). While many organisations with the know-how to successfully implement organic agriculture are active in the region (De Bon et al., 2018[34]), farmers will require technical training to ensure their efforts yield profits.
West African decision-makers can draw on public policy tools to improve agri-food skills
The West African economy is transitioning, as demonstrated by the initiatives and projects being implemented in the agri-business sector. However, when it comes to harnessing agri-business as a lever for economic development in the region, progress remains slow and little has been done to adapt to economic changes. To take full advantage of the potential offered by agri-business, policy recommendations should focus on three kinds of interventions: developing professionalisation plans and programmes; institutionalising co-operation agreements between research organisations and companies in the agri-food sector; and funding skills programmes to better respond to global challenges.
National and regional plans and programmes to professionalise the sector could do more to support local processing businesses and encourage public-private partnerships
Strengthening foundational knowledge must serve as the basis for developing national skills plans and programmes tailored to target sectors. Depending on their natural and comparative advantages in the agri-food sector, countries should identify the skills required to achieve their structural transformation objectives and determine how to develop these skills. These skills plans will enable countries to better target areas that will support their development. Comparative advantages are central when identifying priority value chains: coastal countries could, for example, focus on agri-food businesses linked to fish, vegetables, fruit, juices and their by-products, while Sahelian countries could focus on meat, milk, dried fruits and their by-products. The skills receiving support in a given country should align with its priority industries.
ECOWAS has drawn up a regional strategy to boost the employability of young people in the agro-sylvo-pastoral sector. Adopted in 2019, this strategy aims to address the specific challenges that young people in the region face in relation to employment in the agricultural sector (ECOWAS ARAA, 2024[36]). It encourages the youth to engage in agricultural entrepreneurship by providing financial, technical and institutional support to start and grow their businesses. This includes training and capacity-building programmes to develop their technical, entrepreneurial and leadership skills. The strategy aims to improve young population’s access to productive resources such as land, water and agricultural inputs, as well as consulting and trade-related services. It promotes innovative farming practices and use digital skills to increase efficiency and productivity in the agricultural sector. The strategy calls for collaboration between governments, regional and international organisations, the private sector, civil society and other stakeholders to implement effective programmes to improve the youth’s employability in the agro-sylvo-pastoral sector.
There are other initiatives to promote local products and on-site processing. To add value locally, a number of countries are setting up agricultural growth poles (“agropoles” in French), as centres of excellence in agro-industrial production, or special economic zones. Given that the food systems of many West African countries have been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic and the disruption of grain exports from Ukraine and Russia, these countries have stepped up investment and collaboration between the public and private sectors. Examples of initiatives include:
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In Benin and Togo, the Glo-Djigbé and Adétikopé industrial zones, respectively, are being developed through a partnership between the two countries and the Arise Integrated Industrial Platforms (ARISE IIP) group, which specialises in logistics and industrial platforms. The aim is to maximise the value of natural resources such as cotton, cashew nuts, soybeans, cereals and fruit (mangoes, oranges and pineapples) by processing them locally for export.
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In Senegal, agropoles are designed to boost sales in the local market, where small and medium-sized agribusinesses are key players in the transformation of dairy products, processed cereals, vegetable oils, and fruit juices. Three integrated agropoles are already up and running (in the Centre and South regions of the country), while agropoles in the North and West regions are under construction.
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The Bagré agropole in Burkina Faso stands out for its wide range of skill sets and its commitment to agricultural development. It is a strategic hub that brings together professionals and researchers specialising in various agricultural sub-sectors. This agropole mainly focuses on such skills as agronomic research, good agricultural practices and innovative technologies to increase the sector’s productivity and sustainability (Kaboré and Sédogo, 2014[37]).
The prevalence of the informal sector in West African countries is a barrier that must be overcome by setting up mechanisms to transform family-centred production units into co-operatives. Although informal businesses currently offer a wide range of processed or semi-processed products in African countries, they are not well equipped to withstand the challenges of an industrialising agri-food sector. Improving the quality of agri-food products and adapting supply to demand is a major challenge for family farms, which account for 95% of the West African population working in agriculture (ROPPA, 2018[38]). The agri-food sector is influenced by quality, traceability, hygiene and packaging standards, which small informal production units find it more difficult to comply with. Moreover, the costs involved in setting up a modern, competitive agri-food business are beyond the reach of small, informal operations with no access to bank financing. As a result, grouping informal production and processing units operating in the same sub-sector into co-operatives often allows them to achieve better economies of scale, increase the size of their production facilities, compete more effectively and develop the skills needed to establish cutting-edge agri-food businesses in West Africa.
Private initiatives that combine vocational training, the development of innovative processes and local production are essential to enhance skills in the agri-food sector. Business incubators in the agri-food sector need to be set up as part of research projects that have training and professionalisation components. These research projects will enable production activities to be monitored more rigorously and skills to be updated and upgraded to optimise production and satisfy market demand. The Songhaï project in Benin follows this approach and is an example that could be replicated across the region (Box 7.3).
Box 7.3. The Songhaï Centre: An agri-food skills incubator in West Africa
The Songhaï Centre’s mission seeks to draw on the environmental wealth of the African continent, by combining new technological developments with more sustainable production systems. Its production model strengthens dynamic links and synergies between primary production units (crop, animal, fish farming), and industry and services (agri-business).
Founded in 1984 by Brother Godfrey Nzamujo on 1 hectare of land, the Songhaï Centre approach has since expanded to cover more than 22 hectares, with its innovative model reaching other regions of Benin, as well as Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone. It is particularly recognised for its focus on training young agricultural entrepreneurs since 1989.
In addition to its role as a laboratory trialling environmentally conscious farming methods, the Songhaï Centre plays a key role in skill training for the sustainable development of the agri-food sector. The Songhaï Leadership Academy training programme is supported by a number of development partners, including the Agence française de développement (AFD) (Ambassade de France au Bénin, 2021[39]). The course lasts six months, with a new intake of 80 to 120 full-board students every two months. This training programme intends to catalyse the creation of an experience-sharing network.
The Songhaï model goes beyond farming to operate as a skills incubator namely in fruit juice, pastry, rice, palm oil and soap production. It is shaping a new generation of agricultural entrepreneurs, or “agripreneurs”, yearning to thrive in an environmentally conscious and economically viable system.
Operationalising co-operation agreements between regional research organisations and agri-food companies could improve access to the labour market
Strengthening collaboration with regional and international training centres is of strategic importance. West Africa is home to a number of technical research centres and institutions specialising in agriculture within universities (Annex Table 7.A.1). These centres play a crucial role in research and innovation, and management training in the agricultural sector. They offer training courses for different skill levels (agricultural technicians, researchers, food industry professionals). Training courses cover areas such as crop improvement, water management and food security. These centres would benefit from intra-African and intercontinental research exchange and mobility programmes (see Chapter 2).
Skills development initiatives must better prepare the workforce for an ever-changing working environment by tailoring the training offer. To maximise the effectiveness of these programmes, it is crucial to establish close links between the agricultural and agro-industrial sectors, on one hand, and between vocational training centres and agri-food businesses, on the other hand. This could be achieved by developing TVET programmes, that incorporate in-company placements and partnerships with companies in the agri-food sector. Placement contracts should serve as a bridge between training centres and production units. Regarding tax benefits (accessible to only a minority of formal companies), government-backed financial support mechanisms could be set up to encourage the development of innovative production processes within the framework of co-operation agreements between companies and research centres. In this vein, in 2009 the Nigerian government launched a programme to develop and modernise the country’s agricultural sector and promote food self-sufficiency (Box 7.4).
Despite the current need for TVET in West Africa’s agricultural sector, supply remains insufficient. The agricultural sector alone employs almost half of the region’s workforce, but most countries continue to import a large share of their food products, mainly due to a lack of skills (Gustafson, 2023[40]). This can be explained in part by the limited availability of training in the agricultural sector. In Nigeria, of the 171 technical colleges surveyed, only 37 (21.6%) offer courses in agriculture and related disciplines (Akinde and Vitung, 2020[41]). Conversely, Benin is working to increase the supply of vocational training, and the number of technical agricultural colleges in the country is due to increase three-fold to around 30 by 2025, according to the country’s National Strategy for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (SN-EFTP 2020–2030) (Marie, 2022[42]).
Box 7.4. Agricultural training initiatives in Nigeria
Nigeria has made major changes to its national agricultural policy in recent years. Nigeria’s Vision 2020 programme, launched in 2009, sought to develop and modernise the country’s agricultural sector and promote food self-sufficiency. The Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA), established in 2011, is part of a series of long-term efforts to transform the sector. Training future generations is a crucial element of this strategy.
The policies implemented integrate a gender-sensitive approach. In 2009, women accounted for 70% of the agricultural workforce in Nigeria, despite being seriously affected by a lack of access to resources (FAO, 2018[43]). In 2012, Nigeria’s Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD) merged two of its divisions to create the Gender and Youth Division, in an effort to improve youth participation in the agricultural labour market. In 2013, this division launched the Youth and Women in Agri-business Investment Programme (YWAIP), which trained 5 000 young people for two to six weeks, introduced them to mentors and provided them with financial support to launch their businesses. More than half of the trainees were women. In 2015, 5 500 programme participants including more than 3 000 women, were still employed in agricultural businesses (Adesugba and Mavrotas, 2016[44]).
Training policies in the agricultural sector have focused on young people and agri-businesses. From 2015 to 2020, FMARD’s Gender and Youth Division led a major initiative aimed at training young people in leadership, entrepreneurship and management skills to promote self-employment and improve young people’s perception of the agricultural sector. The initiative was supported by the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). More than 80% of participants were able to set up businesses after their training. However, barely 6 600 trainees took part in 2014 (Mavrotas, 2015[45]).
It is vital to institutionalise co-operation agreements between regional and international research organisations and companies in the agri-food sector. The latter often operate in silos, independently from research and training centres in West Africa. This makes it difficult to transfer skills and keep employees updated about new processes. The mismatch between training and jobs is a recurrent criticism addressed at the education sector. Moreover, new processes developed by research centres are not always applied in the private sector, due to the disconnect between the two spheres. Co-operation agreements would make it possible to train managers on the skills needed to develop production models. They would provide practical support for research trials and operationalising new methods. This would enable companies to support scientific research, which they could then use to improve their productivity. Research-based training contracts, designed to lead to applied master’s and even doctorate-level diplomas, could also be trialled in West Africa. They are already in use in France in the form of Conventions Industrielles de Formation par la Recherche (CIFRE).
Regional and continental training networks are essential for strengthening agricultural and agri-food skills in West Africa. The Agricultural and Rural Training International Network (FAR)3 for instance, has set up a skills development platform dedicated to promoting agriculture (Box 7.5). It offers academic training in agricultural and rural engineering for trainers, school directors, and training co-ordinators. The Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture (RUFORUM) is a network of 129 African universities, including 27 in West Africa. It trains university students and supports collaboration and co-ordination in agricultural research.
Box 7.5. A commitment to agricultural and rural training
The Agricultural and Rural Training International Network (FAR) is a platform for exchanging and strengthening skills, centred around sustainable agriculture and rural environments. Founded in 2005 in Ouagadougou in the framework of a major conference,1 the FAR network brings together 18 countries from Africa and beyond that are committed to promoting professional and social integration through training. With over 3 000 active members, the network strives to develop the necessary skills to face the challenges of modern agriculture.
In addition to providing tailored support to member countries working to modernise their training systems, the network offers high-level training courses, such as the MIFAR international master’s degree. Through capacity-building workshops and innovative projects, FAR catalyses the development of cutting-edge skills, essential for transforming rural environments.
By generating knowledge, communicating, and advocating for agricultural and rural training, FAR has positioned itself as a major international changemaker in the agricultural sector. The network is working to create a more dynamic, inclusive, and sustainable agricultural sector by sharing best practices and facilitating dialogue between stakeholders.
1. The workshop “Mass training in rural areas: Food for thought in defining a national policy” was held in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) in June 2005. It was organised by the French international co-operation cluster (Pôle National de Coopération Internationale – Marseille) at the request of the French Ministries of Foreign Affairs and Agriculture.
International organisations working to promote the agricultural sector and food self-sufficiency can play a decisive role in improving skills in the West African agri-food sector. For example, the International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC) works mainly in developing countries to promote food security and improve the livelihoods of agricultural populations. Its efforts focus on developing and disseminating effective, sustainable technologies for soil fertility management, and creating markets for agricultural inputs and products, to foster rural development and increase agricultural productivity. IFDC co-ordinates the implementation of its activities in several African countries and in Asia. In Benin, IFDC has created 461 farmer field schools, training 6 915 farmers and 294 seed producers on good agricultural practices. Over 4 050 more farmers have adopted the practices they learned at the field schools in 2021.
To better respond to today’s global challenges, in particular climate change, it will be necessary to scale up financing of skills development programmes
A forward-looking vision that takes into account the pressing needs of climate change would help develop the skills required. To respond to climate change, skills development programmes could include training modules on the responsible management of natural resources, promoting organic and ecologically sustainable agriculture, and climate change adaptation strategies. Stakeholders in the agri-food sector need to be trained on sustainable agricultural practices that protect biodiversity, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and bolster the resilience of food systems in the face of environmental and climate-related challenges. ECOWAS, for example, has been implementing the Agroecology Programme (PAE by its French acronym) in West Africa since 2018 to improve agricultural training and capacity building in order to sustainably intensify agriculture and promote agroecology.
Financing the development of the agri-food sector is a major challenge; countries can nevertheless rise to it by implementing effective policies and innovative funding models. Since 2010, formal investment in the region’s agri-food sector has stagnated. Local bank loans are the main formal source of financing for the agriculture, forestry and fisheries sector, accounting for USD 6.7 billion in 2020, while development finance stood at just USD 1.7 billion and public spending at just USD 1.1 billion in the same year. Foreign direct investment (FDI) fluctuates greatly and tends to be concentrated in the largest West African economies, leading to a general shortage of funding for agricultural productivity and downstream activities (e.g. processing, marketing and distribution) (AUC/OECD, 2023[46]). The “Babban Gona” (“Great Farm” in Hausa) franchise model, which brings together investors, development finance institutions and foundations, is proving effective. Babban Gona aims to double the net income of participants – mainly youth in rural northern Nigeria – compared with the national average, through loans, inputs, harvesting and storage services and training via the BG Farm University platform (courses in agronomy, financial literacy, business skills and leadership). Since 2010, the organisation has created 300 000 agricultural jobs. An additional 850 000 people have benefited indirectly (Babban Gona, 2024[47]).
More public investment will help grow the sector and improve food self-sufficiency. In view of the persistent risk of food insecurity, following the Maputo Declaration on Agriculture and Food Security in 2003, governments pledged to earmark at least 10% of their national budgets for implementing the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP). This initiative aims to increase annual growth in the sector to 6%. With the exception of Benin, Guinea-Bissau, Mali and Togo, ECOWAS countries have allocated less than 5% of their expenditure to the agricultural sector. Moreover, the agriculture orientation index for government expenditure4 is relatively low in West Africa (0.13) compared with the global average (0.5) (Figure 7.14).
Figure 7.14. Agriculture orientation index for government expenditure and share of total public expenditure spent on agriculture in West Africa, average 2017-21
Note: An agricultural orientation index (AOI) greater than 1 indicates greater government orientation towards the agricultural sector, i.e. the sector receives a higher share of public spending relative to its contribution to economic value added. If it is less than 1, the orientation towards agriculture is weaker; if equal to 1, government orientation towards the agricultural sector is neutral.
Source: World Bank (2024[48])SDG Metadata translation project, https://worldbank.github.io/sdg-metadata/metadata/fr/2-a-1; FAOSTAT (2023[20]), Food and agriculture data (database), https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home.
While informal private financing plays an important role for smallholders in West Africa, compared with other regions, it is not generally aimed at improving skills. Most informal private investment in the region (USD 23.1 billion in 2020) is focused on agricultural production and is often risky, possibly entailing excessively high interest rates or low financial accountability (AUC/OECD, 2023[46]). Nevertheless, initiatives in the formal sector aim to address the shortages of credit and green skills in West Africa. For example, the ECOWAS-led West African Initiative for Climate-Smart Agriculture is a blended finance fund that encourages smallholders to adopt climate-smart farming practices, thereby broadening their environmental skills. The fund, which plans to mitigate up to 2 million tonnes of CO2 emissions per year (equivalent to more than 6 billion kilometres, of driving), pools public and concessional capital and provides subsidised interest rate loans of up to USD 1 million to farmers’ organisations and agri-businesses (The Lab, 2024[49]).
Annex 7.A. Technical research centres specialising in agri-food research
Annex Table 7.A.1. Examples of technical research centres in West Africa specialising in agri-food research
Note: This table lists the most representative research centres in the region.
Source: Compiled by the authors.
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Notes
← 1. Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Niger, Senegal and Togo
← 2. System skills are a sub-category of soft skills (see Box 1.1 in Chapter 1). They include: i) reasoned decision making; ii) optimising and anticipating impacts; and iii) evaluating and adjusting performance to meet objectives.
← 3. Priority countries concerned (members of the FAR network): Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea, Haiti, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Senegal, Togo and Tunisia.
← 4. The agriculture orientation index for public expenditures describes the share of public expenditure allocated to agriculture divided by agriculture’s share of GDP – with agriculture defined here in the strict sense to cover forestry, fisheries and livestock. It measures progress towards Target 2.a of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).