Education at a Glance 2018

OECD Indicators

Report

Education at a Glance

11 September 2018

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Indicator A6. How are social outcomes related to education?

Among 15-year-old students, environmental awareness increases significantly and systematically with higher levels of science proficiency.
In most OECD countries, there is a positive, but not always statistically significant, correlation between higher educational attainment and environmental acknowledgement, attitude and action.
Seven of the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are directly linked to the environment and environmental protection, but in some schools this topic is not included in the curriculum for eighth-grade students (13.5 years old on average).

Figure A6.1. Environmental awareness, acknowledgement, attitude and action, by science proficiency level or educational attainment (2014, 2015 or 2016)

Context

Environmental considerations are present in our everyday well-being, from adverse weather events to the loss of biodiversity and the quality of the air we breathe and the water we consume. The environment and environmental protection are fast emerging as the centrepiece of human development and a defining moment for humanity (UN, 2013[1]; World Economic Forum, 2018[2]). Over the past 150 years, the world has experienced unprecedented industrial and technological advances in parallel with phenomenal population growth. Along this unprecedented developmental path, the world’s ecosystem has been put under ever-increasing pressure to absorb ecological damage resulting from extensive industrialisation and increased demands on its natural resources (Dimick, 2014[3]; WWF, 2016[4]). The prevailing scientific views put the ecosystem at a delicate crossroads in its ability to sustain a healthy and balanced habitation for all those living on earth (Ripple et al., 2017[5]; UNEP, 2016[6]; Waters et al., 2016[7]).

Amid mounting global challenges, there have been many examples over the last few decades of positive developments on a local or a national scale. More importantly, in recent years, we have seen the convergence of global forces calling for concerted policies and actions to halt and reverse environmental damage. These developments underline the fact that global efforts are key to ensuring environmental sustainability (Goosen, 2012[8]). The latest effort culminated in the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Bonn, Germany in November 2017. Of the 17 SDGs, 7 either explicitly deal with or are embedded in an environmental context (Box A6.2).

Education plays a fundamental role in achieving the SDGs. Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is explicitly recognised as a target for the goal on inclusive and equitable education for all. Education empowers individuals to make changes in their own behaviour. It is through the transformation of individuals’ own behaviour that they collectively contribute to sustainable development, by promoting the necessary societal, economic and political changes.

Reporting the relationship between education and the environment in Education at a Glance 2018 is the first in a four-year reporting cycle to implement the new thematic framework for the indicator on education and social outcomes, as described in Education at a Glance 2017, Box A8.1 (OECD, 2017[9]). Over the next three years, the indicator on education and social outcomes will focus on work-life balance and social connections (in 2019), civic engagement, governance and personal safety (in 2020), and health status and subjective well-being (in 2021). That will complete the first full cycle of monitoring the well-being of societies in relation to education.

Other findings

When adults are asked if they take personal action to reduce energy use, a large number of countries show statistically significant differences between levels of educational attainment. In contrast, when adults are asked if they agree that environmental issues have an impact on their daily life or whether they believe in personal responsibility for looking after the environment, only a few countries show statistically significant differences.
Less than 30% of adults report signing a petition for environmental reasons or giving money to an environmental group. But despite this low share, the difference by educational attainment level is more significant than for other types of actions, such as reduction of energy use, which around 45% of adults report doing, regardless of their educational attainment.

Note

This indicator presents data drawn from a variety of sources. The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2015 and the European Social Survey (ESS) (Round 8 in 2016) are the principal data sources. It also includes data from the International Civics and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS) of eighth-grade students in 2016, as well as from three international population-based surveys used as supplementary sources: Eurobarometer (special modules 416 and 417 in 2014), the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) (Environment III in 2010) and the World Values Survey (WVS) (Wave 6 in 2010-14).

For each international population-based survey, the percentages of adults for each educational attainment level were compared at a country level with their respective percentages in Indicator A1. In cases where data for a country were found to have major problems with ISCED compatibility that could not be satisfactorily resolved, the data were excluded from the analysis. More information on data assessment and different questions used in the surveys is included in the Methodology section at the end of this indicator.

As the questions asked in these surveys differ in some aspects, the results are not directly compared in the analysis. However, differences by level of educational attainment within countries and patterns across countries can still provide good insights into the links between education and environmental social outcomes.

Analysis

The analysis presented in this indicator uses the following 4As framework, which describes the cognitive and behavioural processes that govern the dynamics of an individual’s interactions with the environment. The processes follow incremental steps of intensity to construct a pathway towards enhanced engagement with environmental issues:

1) Awareness of environmental issues describes an individual’s level of knowledge or perception of a situation, the circumstances surrounding the situation and future developments. This is largely a passive process, requiring no higher-level cognitive interaction beyond simple fact recognition.

2) Acknowledgement of environmental issues reflects what the individual and, by inference, the society accepts as the norm. Acknowledgement is one step beyond simply accepting or receiving, to explicitly admit knowledge of the issue. It implies undertaking cognitive fact processing.

3) Attitude towards environmental issues refers to a set of emotions and beliefs that is moderated by the individual’s value system. Implicitly implied in attitude are the complex value judgements the individual has made, which constitute a higher-level cognitive process.

4) Action in response to environmental issues depicts the outward expression of the individual’s attitudes, by way of taking a certain course of action. Action is clearly in the behavioural domain, but inaction on the part of an individual can be equally revealing.

Figure A6.1 pools data for countries from the main data sources to provide a high-level and schematic overview of the results across the 4As presented above. There is a marked and, in most cases, statistically significant improvement in social environmental outcomes among those with higher educational attainment. Overall levels across the 4As are high, although data points should not be compared across the 4As, as they were drawn from different sources and for different reference population groups. Among the 4As, awareness has the widest spread across the groups, and attitude has the narrowest spread. This suggests that students' proficiency in science has a large influence in raising awareness, while educational attainment does not seem to play a large role in shaping attitudinal beliefs.

Awareness of environmental issues

Data from PISA 2015 show a generally high level of self-reported awareness of a range of environmental issues among 15-year-old students. Across OECD countries, environmental issues pertaining to the use and preservation of natural resources (such as extinction of plants and animals, the consequences of deforestation and other land use, and water shortage) attract high levels of awareness. About seven out of ten students or more reported having at least some knowledge of these issues and being able to explain them in general terms. In comparison, there was a relatively lower level of awareness of environmental issues related to technology-induced products (such as the increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, nuclear waste and the use of genetically modified organisms) (Table A6.1).

When looking at students’ self-reported awareness according to their PISA science proficiency level, there is a sharp contrast between those with a high proficiency level and those with a low proficiency level. The percentage of students reporting awareness of environmental issues increases significantly with an increased science proficiency level, and that pattern is consistent across all seven environmental issues (Figure A6.2).

The awareness and science proficiency gradient is particularly steep for Japan, where students also tend to report lower overall levels of awareness across most environmental issues. Students' self-reported awareness of environmental issues relating to the use and preservation of natural resources shows a large difference by proficiency level in Belgium and France. In Korea and Luxembourg, self-reported awareness relating to technology-induced products shows a steep gradient by science proficiency level (Table A6.1).

Figure A6.2 also shows that, across OECD countries, the increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is the issue that most separates students at different levels of PISA science proficiency. On average, students with proficiency Level 5 or above are more than two-and-a-half times more likely to report being aware of greenhouse gases than students with proficiency Level 2 or below. The same observation holds true in the majority of countries (Table A6.1).

Figure A6.2. Percentage of 15-year-old students who report being aware or well aware of environmental issues, by science proficiency level (2015)

Box A6.1. Environmental education at schools

The field of environmental education has a well-established history of over forty years (Stevenson et al., 2013[10]). Over these four decades, environmental education has emerged from being an isolated consideration into a discussion integrated with social issues of health, education, poverty and wider social progress. In recent years, this field has received considerably more attention, as topics such as conservation, biodiversity and sustainability gained prominence.

On average across OECD countries, between half and three-quarters of 15-year-old students reported that their school was the main source of information on a range of environmental issues. Environmental education at school helps young people to acquire the knowledge, skills and values necessary to support the transition to a more sustainable world. "Do today's 15-year-olds feel environmentally responsible?", PISA in Focus, No. 21 concludes that schools appear to play a central role as a source of knowledge on environmental issues (OECD, 2012[11]).

Education and environmental education were at the core of United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005-14), with its mission to integrate the principles, values and practices of sustainable development into all aspects of education and learning. According to the 2015 monitoring report by the United Nations Economic Council for Europe, in over 90% of the member states that submitted a national implementation report, ESD is integrated in their national education policy documents (Creech and Buckler, 2015[12]). The vast majority of these countries have moved beyond a policy framework to curricula and/or standards. National efforts are commonly focused on addressing: 1) key sustainable development themes in curricula; 2) broad competencies and learning outcomes; and 3) pedagogical approaches.

Countries reported diverse approaches to addressing ESD in the curriculum, from embedding ESD in education frameworks and requirements for knowledge, skills, attitudes and competences to trialling experimental curricula with sustainability-focused modules and supporting extracurricular activities, such as field studies and competitions (Creech and Buckler, 2015[12]). Many countries reported increasing availability of tools and resources, but some countries underlined that the level of demand for these materials is unknown.

The 2016 ICCS, which gathered information from eighth-grade students (13.5 years old on average), their teachers and their school, found that the topic of the environment and environmental sustainability is commonly included in the Grade 8 curriculum. Among the 15 OECD member and partner countries that participated and responded to the question on curriculum topics, 11 countries indicated that this topic is part of the curriculum at this level of education (ICCS/IEA, 2016[13]).

There is also evidence of widespread emphasis on environmental sustainability in teaching and school practice in some countries. Figure A6.a shows the proportion of schools where the principal reported that all or most eighth-grade students had the opportunity to take part in environmental sustainability activities in the current school year. As the unit of analysis is the individual school, the error range is relatively large.

In Finland, Italy, Lithuania, Mexico, the Russian Federation and Slovenia, 70% of schools or more reported that all or most of their eight-grade students took part in environmental sustainability activities in the 2016 school year. Chile, Denmark, Korea, the Netherlands and Norway reported a significantly lower proportion of schools where students participated in environmental sustainability activities (Figure A6.a).

Figure A6.a. Percentage of schools where all or most of the eighth-grade students take part in internal or external school activities related to environmental sustainability (2016)

Acknowledgement of environmental issues

Overall, there is a widespread consensus on the impact of environmental issues. Among countries participating in the Eurobarometer survey, which monitors public opinion in EU Member States, about 70% to 90% of adults agree that environmental issues are affecting their everyday lives. Among countries participating in the ISSP, a cross-national collaboration programme conducting annual surveys on diverse topics relevant to social sciences, data show a lower share of adults who agree that environmental issues have an impact on their daily life, but on average still more than 45% do so (Table A6.2). The difference between the two sources is partly explained by the way the question is asked (see Methodology section).

The level of acknowledgement of environmental issues differs substantially by educational attainment. On average across countries, the higher the educational attainment, the higher the level of acknowledgement of environmental issues. However, at country level, there are relatively few cases of statistically significant comparisons. This is because of the general nature of these surveys and the inherent imprecision in the statistical estimates derived from small sub-samples (Table A6.2).

The education gradient on the acknowledgement of environmental impacts is particularly steep in Belgium, Latvia, Turkey and the United Kingdom. In these countries, the proportion of adults who agree that environmental issues are having an impact on their everyday lives is significantly higher among with those with tertiary education than among those without tertiary education (Table A6.2).

Attitude towards environmental issues

On average, over two-thirds of adults identify themselves as having a positive attitude towards protecting the environment. Compared to the levels of awareness or acknowledgement, the level of positive attitude towards environmental protection seems more evenly spread across different educational attainment levels. This suggests that other dynamics, such as societal norms and social desirability, are involved in formulating attitudes. Nonetheless, an educational gradient is still clearly discernible. On average across countries, the level of positive attitude towards environmental protection increases with higher educational attainment (Table A6.3).

Adults with tertiary education reported a significantly higher level of positive attitude towards environmental protection than adults with less than tertiary education. This is particularly true for the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom. In the case of the Czech Republic, there is also a significant difference in the level of positive attitude between adults with below upper secondary education and adults with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education (Table A6.3).

In contrast, Israel and Switzerland seem to have an inverse relationship between attitude towards environmental protection and educational attainment. However, the differences between educational attainment categories are not statistically significant (Table A6.3).

Taking actions on environmental issues

There is a wide spectrum of actions one can take for an environmental cause. General population-based social surveys tend to focus on either behavioural patterns and lifestyle changes in personal consumption or explicit participatory steps in support of certain environmental causes.

Figure A6.3. Percentage of adults who report taking personal action to reduce energy use, by educational attainment (2016 or 2010)

Among countries participating in the ESS (an academically driven cross-national survey conducted across Europe), on average more than 70% of adults reported that they always or often take action to reduce energy use for environmental reasons (Table A6.4). The overall level of positive action is slightly above the level of positive attitude noted in the previous section. However, as will be shown later, attitude is not always matched by actions.

As with other cognitive domains, behavioural patterns also demonstrate a positive education gradient, in which the proportion of adults taking action increases with increased educational attainment. But unlike other cognitive domains, on average across countries, the incremental difference is more marked between adults with below upper secondary education and adults with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education (Table A6.4).

Box A6.2. United Nations SDGs and individual actions

Of the 17 SDGs, 7 are directly linked to the environment and environmental protection (Goals 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15) (UN, 2015[14]). These goals are designed to be world-changing, and the UN team prepared the “Lazy Person’s Guide to Saving the World”, which offers examples of things that individuals can do to make an impact (UN, 2018[15]).

Questions about such grassroots actions are often asked in social surveys on the environment. For example, in the ISSP, adults were asked how often they take six specific actions in their consumption and lifestyle choices, including sorting waste and recycling, buying fruit and vegetables grown without pesticides or chemicals, reducing energy or fuel use at home, or restricting use of a car for environmental reasons.

Figure A6.b presents pooled data for the OECD and partner countries participating in the survey. Detailed analysis of data from the action “reducing energy use” is presented in Figure A6.3. With the exception of the action “save or reuse water for environmental reasons”, all other actions exhibit a marked positive education gradient in which the proportion of adults who always or often follow through on the environmental action increases with higher levels of education (Figure A6.b).

Figure A6.b. Percentage of adults who report taking personal action for environmental reasons, by educational attainment (2010)

As mentioned earlier, a different set of actions, chosen by some individuals, involves a more active form of public and civic participation. The ISSP also asked adults if they are a member of a group whose main aim is to preserve or protect the environment and whether, in the last five years, they have signed a petition about an environmental issue, given money to an environmental group or taken part in a protest or demonstration about an environmental issue. Interestingly, while the percentage of positive responses to the civic and participatory actions is generally much lower compared to actions on consumption and lifestyle choices, the positive education gradient is much more marked, particularly between those with tertiary education and those with less than tertiary education. This last finding suggests that the influence of education seems stronger on civic actions than on lifestyle and consumption (Figure A6.b).

Germany has the steepest education gradients, with a difference of about 20 percentage points between adults with tertiary education and adults with below upper secondary education who reported often or always reducing energy consumption. Austria, Finland, France, Ireland, Israel, Poland and the United Kingdom all have statistically significant differences between some or all levels of educational attainment (Figure A6.3).

Further analysis of the data shows that, out of every four adults who believe looking after the environment is important, only three always or often reduce energy use for environmental reasons. Moreover, an educational gradient is equally observable among those who take action and those who do not. In other words, increased educational attainment is associated with greater efficacy of channelling positive attitude to positive actions (ESS, 2017[16]).

Definitions

Acknowledgement of environmental issues is defined differently by different surveys. For the Eurobarometer survey, it refers to adults who totally agree or tend to agree that environmental issues have a direct effect on daily life. For the ISSP, it refers to adults who agree or agree strongly that environmental problems have a direct effect on their everyday lives.

Action in response to environmental issues is also defined differently by different surveys. For the ESS, it refers to adults who often, very often or always do things to reduce energy use, such as switching off appliances that are not being used, walking for short journeys or only using heating or air conditioning when really needed. For the ISSP, it refers to adults who often or always reduce energy or fuel use at home for environmental reasons.

Adults refer to 25-64 year-olds.

Attitude towards environmental issues refers to adults who answer that a person with the following characteristics is "like me" or "very much like me”: In the ESS, the characteristics are: “He/she strongly believes that people should care for nature. Looking after the environment is important to him/her.” In the WVS, the characteristics are: “Looking after the environment is important to this person; to care for nature and save life resources.”

Educational attainment refers to the highest level of education achieved by a person.

Education gradient refers to a change in the value of a variable when considering different levels of educational attainment. A steep education gradient implies a large change in the value of a selected variable at different levels of educational attainment.

Environmental awareness on a specific environmental issue refers to 15-year-old students who answered that they know something about the issue and could explain the general issue or that they are familiar with the issue and would be able to explain it well.

Science proficiency levels: To help users interpret what student scores mean in substantive terms, PISA scales are divided into proficiency levels. For PISA 2015, the range of difficulty of science tasks is represented by seven levels of science proficiency (ranging from the highest, Level 6, to Level 1b). Below Level 2 represents a score below 410 points; Level 2 to below Level 5 represents a score between 410 and 632 inclusively; and Level 5 or above represents a score above 632. For more information on science proficiency levels see PISA 2015 Results (Volume I): Excellence and Equity in Education (OECD, 2016[17]).

Methodology

For each survey, the percentages of adults for each educational attainment level were compared at a country level with their respective percentages in Indicator A1. Following consultations with countries, data on educational attainment were recoded to improve compatibility with the levels in Indicator A1 for the following surveys and countries:

ESS: Austria and the Russian Federation
Eurobarometer: Austria, Belgium, Finland and Spain
ISSP: Chile, Israel, Spain, Switzerland and the United States
WVS: Chile and Turkey

In the ESS, some discrepancies still exist in the survey sample distribution for Austria, Poland, the Russian Federation and Sweden, even after the recoding of educational attainment for Austria and the Russian Federation. Similar discrepancies also exist for Greece in the Eurobarometer (see Annex 3, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2018-36-en.

Lithuania was not an OECD member at the time of preparation of this publication. Accordingly, Lithuania does not appear in the list of OECD members and is not included in the zone aggregates.

Source

Data from PISA 2015 provided evidence on environmental awareness among 15-year-old students.

Data from the 2016 ICCS provided evidence on eighth-grade students who had the opportunity to take part in activities related to environmental sustainability.

Data from the 2016 ESS (Round 8) provided evidence on adults' attitudes and actions in response to environmental issues.

Data from the 2014 Eurobarometer (special modules 416 and 417) provided evidence on adults' acknowledgement of environmental issues.

Data from the 2010 ISSP (Environment III) provided evidence on adults' acknowledgement and action in response to environmental issues.

Data from the 2010-2014 WVS (Wave 6) provided evidences on adults' attitudes towards environmental issues.

Note regarding data from Israel

The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and are under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.

References

[12] Creech, H. and C. Buckler (2015), Learning from each other: achievements, challenges and ways forward, Third evaluation report of the UNECE Strategy for Education for Sustainable Development, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Steering, Geneva, https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/esd/11thMeetSC/Documents/1521609E.pdf.

[3] Dimick, D. (2014), As World’s Population Booms, Will Its Resources Be Enough for Us?, https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/09/140920-population-11billion-demographics-anthropocene/ (accessed on 27 February 2018).

[16] ESS (2017), Data and Documentation by Round, http://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/data/download.html?r=8 (accessed on 28 February 2018).

[8] Goosen, M. (2012), “Environmental management and sustainable development”, Procedia Engineering, Vol. 33, pp. 6-13, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/J.PROENG.2012.01.1171.

[13] ICCS/IEA (2016), International Civic and Citizenship Education Study 2016, http://iccs.iea.nl/cycles/2016.html (accessed on 27 February 2018).

[9] OECD (2017), Education at a Glance 2017: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2017-en.

[17] OECD (2016), PISA 2015 Results (Volume I): Excellence and Equity in Education, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264266490-en.

[11] OECD (2012), “Do today's 15-year-olds feel environmentally responsible?”, PISA in Focus, No. 21, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k918xhzk88t-en.

[5] Ripple, W. et al. (2017), “World scientists’ warning to humanity: A second notice”, BioScience, Vol. 67/12, pp. 1026-1028, http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biosci/bix125.

[10] Stevenson, R. et al. (2013), International Handbook of Research on Environmental Education, Routledge, London, https://www.routledge.com/International-Handbook-of-Research-on-Environmental-Education/Stevenson-Brody-Dillon-Wals/p/book/9780415892391 (accessed on 27 February 2018).

[15] UN (2018), Lazy Person's Guide to Saving the World, http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/takeaction/ (accessed on 27 February 2018).

[14] UN (2015), Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld (accessed on 15 May 2018).

[1] UN (2013), Open Working Group proposal for Sustainable Development Goals, https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/focussdgs.html (accessed on 27 February 2018).

[6] UNEP (2016), Rate of Environmental Damage Increasing Across the Planet but Still Time to Reverse Worst Impacts, http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2016/05/rate-of-environmental-damage-increasing-across-planet-but-still-time-to-reverse-worst-impacts/ (accessed on 27 February 2018).

[7] Waters, C. et al. (2016), “The Anthropocene is functionally and stratigraphically distinct from the Holocene.”, Science, Vol. 351/6269, http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aad2622.

[2] World Economic Forum (2018), The Global Risks Report 2018 13th Edition, World Economic Forum, Geneva, http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GRR18_Report.pdf (accessed on 27 February 2018).

[4] WWF (2016), Living Planet Report 2016: Risk and Resilience in a New Era, http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/all_publications/lpr_2016/ (accessed on 27 February 2018).

Indicator A6 Tables

Table A6.1 Percentage of 15-year-old students who report being aware or well aware of environmental issues, by science proficiency level (2015)

Table A6.2 Percentage of adults who agree that environmental issues have an impact on their daily life, by educational attainment (2014 or 2010)

Table A6.3 Percentage of adults who believe in personal responsibility for looking after the environment, by educational attainment (2016 or 2010-2014)

Table A6.4 Percentage of adults who report taking personal action to reduce energy use, by educational attainment (2016 or 2010)

Any updates on data can be found on line at http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-data-en. Data can also be found at http://stats.oecd.org/, Education at a Glance Database.

https://doi.org/10.1787/888933802608

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