Tertiary education is marked by a large gender gap by field of study. While a high share of male graduates obtain a degree in engineering, manufacturing and construction (25% on average across OECD countries), the proportion of female graduates in this field is low (6% on average). In contrast, only 5% of male graduates obtained a degree in education, compared to 14% of female graduates.
Bachelor’s degrees remain the most common tertiary diploma held by graduates in OECD countries. In 2016, on average across OECD countries, a majority (75%) of first-time tertiary graduates earned a bachelor’s degree, 11% earned a master’s degree and 15% earned a short-cycle tertiary diploma.
Based on current patterns of graduation, an average of 49% of today’s young people across OECD countries is expected to graduate from tertiary education at least once in their lifetime.
Education at a Glance 2018
Indicator B5. Who is expected to graduate from tertiary education?
Figure B5.1. Distribution of tertiary graduates, by gender and field of study (2016)
Source: OECD / UIS / Eurostat (2018), Education at a Glance Database, http://stats.oecd.org/. See Source section at the end of this indicator for more information and Annex 3 for notes (http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2018-36-en).
Context
Tertiary graduation rates illustrate a country’s capacity to provide future workers with advanced and specialised knowledge and skills. Incentives to earn a tertiary degree, including higher salaries and better employment prospects, remain strong across OECD countries (see Indicators A3, A4 and A5 for further reading on these themes). Tertiary education varies in structure and scope among countries, and graduation rates seem to be influenced by the ease of access to and flexibility in programmes, the supply of spaces available by education level and fields of study, and also the labour-market demand for higher skills.
In recent decades, access to tertiary education has expanded remarkably, with new types of institutions that offer more choice and new modes of delivery (OECD, 2016[1]) . In parallel, the student population is becoming increasingly diverse in study pathways chosen. Students are also becoming more likely to seek a tertiary degree outside their country of origin.
Policy makers are exploring ways to help ease the transition from tertiary education into the labour market (OECD, 2015[2]). Analysing current graduation patterns can help to understand student progression through higher education and better anticipate the flow of new tertiary-educated workers into the labour force. From an equity perspective, given the better labour-market and social outcomes associated with tertiary education (see Chapter A), governments should also ensure that graduation from tertiary education is not dependent on gender, socio-economic or demographic background (see Indicator B7). For instance, to tackle inequity in tertiary education, countries such as Australia propose scholarships, academic support and alternative entry schemes for students from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds (OECD, 2014[3])
Other findings
Advanced tertiary degrees attract more international students (see Definitions section at the end of this indicator) than bachelor’s or equivalent degrees. Some 26% of students in OECD countries who graduated for the first time from a doctoral programme in 2016 were international students, as were 17% of students who earned a master’s degree or the equivalent, and 7% of graduates who earned a bachelor’s degree for the first time.
First-time tertiary graduation rates are significantly lower for men than for women in all countries with available data. On average across OECD countries, 43% of women are expected to obtain a tertiary degree before the age of 30, compared to only 29% of men.
Across OECD countries with available data, the average age at which people graduate for the first time from a tertiary level programme is 26.
Note
Graduation rates are the estimated percentage of an age cohort that is expected to graduate in their lifetime. This estimate is based on the total number of graduates in 2016 and the age-specific distribution of graduates. Therefore, graduation rates are based on the current pattern of graduation and are sensitive to any changes in education systems, such as the introduction of new programmes or any variations in a programme’s duration (as has occurred in many countries in the European Union with the implementation of the Bologna Process).
In this indicator, age generally refers to the age of students at the beginning of the calendar year. Students could be one year older than the age indicated when they graduate at the end of the school year. Age 30 is used as the upper limit for completing short-cycle tertiary, bachelor’s degrees and first-time tertiary education overall. At the master’s and doctoral levels, 35 is considered to be the upper age limit for graduation.
Analysis
Profile of graduates and first-time graduates from tertiary education
Over the past two decades, tertiary education has changed significantly in OECD countries. The student body is more international, more women than men are graduating from this level of education, and the fields of study chosen have evolved. These changes may reflect concerns about competitiveness in the global economy and the labour market, but they also signal the interests and priorities of a growing student population.
Profile of graduates, by field of study
The distribution of graduates by field of study is related, for instance, to the relative popularity of these fields among students, the number of study spaces offered in universities and equivalent institutions, and the degree structure of the various disciplines in each country.
Currently, in most OECD countries, the largest share of graduates across all tertiary education programmes complete degrees in business, administration and law, with a few exceptions (Table B5.2). In Korea and Portugal the most popular field among tertiary graduates is engineering, manufacturing and construction; in Belgium, Finland, Norway and Sweden it is health and welfare; in India it is social sciences, information and journalism; in Argentina it is education; and in Saudi Arabia and the United States it is arts and humanities. Some of these differences can be explained by the structure of educational systems and the types of institutions offering qualifications in each field of study across countries. For example, degrees in fields of study such as nursing (included in the health and welfare field) are more likely to be offered in tertiary programmes in countries that have integrated most of the post-secondary vocational education into their tertiary education system.
In most countries, the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (also known as STEM) are less popular. In more than half of the OECD and partner countries with available data, the combined share of students graduating from the fields of natural sciences, mathematics and statistics; engineering, manufacturing and construction; and information and communication technologies is still lower than the share of students graduating from business, administration and law. In 2016, 24% of tertiary graduates obtained a degree from STEM fields on average across OECD countries, although this ranges from 16% in the Netherlands to 36% in Germany.
Profile of graduates, by field of study and gender
The field of business, administration and law attracts an equally high share of male and female tertiary graduates on average across OECD countries (24% for women and 25% for men) (Figure B5.1). This makes it, by far, the most popular field among women – the second most popular field being health and welfare, which accounts for 20% of female graduates.
In contrast, other fields, such as engineering, manufacturing and construction, are significantly more attractive to men than women. While this is among the most popular fields for men (25% of male graduates on average across the OECD), only 6% of female graduates obtained a degree in engineering, manufacturing and construction in 2016. In fact, the only countries where the share of female graduates from engineering, manufacturing and construction exceeds 10% are Mexico (11%) and Portugal (12%).
The pattern of gender imbalance is reversed in the field of education, with 14% of female graduates, but only 5% of male graduates on average across OECD countries. Similarly, 20% of female graduates obtained a degree in health and welfare, compared to 8% of male graduates. This gender gap in the fields of education and health and welfare is common to all OECD countries with available data.
The relevance of gender balance across fields of study is twofold. First, from an equity perspective, it is important to ensure that individuals can choose the studies or career paths that appeal to them, without being discouraged by social perceptions of what constitutes female or male occupations (OECD, 2014[4]). Second, gender imbalances in fields of study can translate into imbalances in the labour market, and there is evidence of GDP gains from more equal participation of male and female workers (Elborgh-Woytek et al., 2013[5]).
Profile of first-time graduates, by education level
First-time graduates from tertiary education are defined as students who receive a tertiary degree for the first time in their life in a given country.
In 2016, the large majority of first-time tertiary graduates were awarded a bachelor’s degree. On average across OECD countries, 75% of first-time tertiary graduates earned a bachelor’s degree, 11% earned a master’s degree and 15% earned a short-cycle tertiary diploma (Table B5.1).
However, this pattern varies significantly across countries. Over 30% of first-time graduates obtained a master’s or equivalent degree in Luxembourg, the Russian Federation, Slovenia and , and over 40% of first-time graduates obtained a short-cycle tertiary degree in Austria, Chile, Turkey and the United States. Bachelor’s or equivalent degrees remain the most common tertiary diploma held by first-time graduates in all of these countries, with two exceptions: Austria, where short-cycle tertiary degrees are the most common tertiary diploma, and the Russian Federation, where master’s or equivalent degrees are the most common tertiary diploma.These differences may result from the structure of the tertiary system, the attractiveness of the programmes to international students (particularly at master’s level, long first degrees), or more vigorous promotion of certain programmes in some countries (such as short-cycle tertiary diplomas).
Profile of first-time graduates, by gender
Recognising the impact that education has on participation in the labour market, occupational mobility and quality of life, policy makers and educators are emphasising the importance of reducing differences between men and women in educational opportunities and outcomes.
In 2016, more women than men graduated from tertiary education: on average, 57% of first-time graduates from tertiary education in OECD countries were women, ranging from 49% in Switzerland to 65% in Latvia (Table B5.1). In addition, the share of female graduates was higher than the share of female first-time entrants into tertiary education (see Indicator B4) in almost all OECD and partner countries with available data. The gap between first-time graduates and first-time entrants is particularly important in the Czech Republic, Lithuania and the Slovak Republic, with a difference of over 6 percentage points. This confirms previous findings that women are more likely to complete tertiary education than their male counterparts (see Indicator A9 in (OECD, 2016[6])).
Although most tertiary graduates in 2016 were women, men still have better labour market outcomes. Earnings for tertiary-educated men are higher, on average, than those for tertiary-educated women, and tertiary-educated men tend to have higher employment rates than women with the same level of education (see Indicators A3 and A4).
Profile of first-time graduates, by age
For some years now, many OECD countries have been concerned about the length of time tertiary students take to complete their studies. They have developed policies to encourage students to graduate more quickly in order to get more workers into the labour market at an earlier age. For example, the reforms following the Bologna Declaration in 1999 (which introduced a new degree structure in European countries) were explicitly motivated by a policy objective to reduce the length of studies.
Across OECD countries in 2016, 82% of first-time tertiary graduates graduated before age 30, and the average age of graduation was 26 (Table B5.1). The variation among countries is large, however, ranging from 23 in Lithuania and the United Kingdom, to 28 in Luxembourg, Sweden and Switzerland. The average age at which most students graduate reflects a combination of average age at entry and programme duration. Entrance to tertiary education can be delayed by the structure of upper secondary education systems, processes for entry and admission into tertiary education, conscription requirements, or diverse pathways to transition from study to work. Programme duration depends on the structure of the educational programme, or on the intensity of enrolment, i.e. full time or part time. In Luxembourg, Sweden and Switzerland, students graduate later but the average age of entry is two to three years older than the OECD average (age 24-25 compared to the average of 22). The older age at both graduation and entry in these countries reflects students’ various trajectories before entering higher education, the flexibility of the education system to accommodate transitions between educational programmes or between work and study, and adults’ lifelong learning (see Indicator B4). The higher enrolment in part-time studies, as observed in Sweden and Switzerland, also tends to delay the average graduation age (see Indicator B1).
The difference between entry and graduation age can be very small in some countries and can be driven in part by the prevalence of short-cycle tertiary degrees, as these programmes generally take only two years, compared to three or four years for a bachelor’s degree. Moreover, in some countries, short-cycle tertiary programmes are specifically designed for older students, who may take longer to graduate, increasing the entry age compared to the graduation age at this level.
First-time graduation rates from tertiary education
Based on 2016 patterns of graduation, 49% of today’s young people (including international students) can expect to graduate from tertiary education at least once in their lifetime on average across OECD countries. The proportion ranges from 18% in Luxembourg (although this percentage is negatively biased by the 74% of secondary graduates who pursue tertiary studies abroad) to 70% or more in Australia, Denmark, Japan and New Zealand (Table B5.3).
First-time graduation rates, by levels of education
More young people are expected to graduate from a bachelor’s degree programme in their lifetime than from any other level of tertiary education. Based on patterns of graduation prevailing in 2016, on average across OECD countries, 38% of young people are expected to graduate with a bachelor’s degree, 18% are expected to earn a master’s degree, 10% are expected to graduate from a short-cycle tertiary programme, and roughly 2% are expected to graduate from a doctoral programme in their lifetime (Table B5.3).
Although bachelor’s degrees remain the most commonly held tertiary diploma, OECD countries are also promoting other levels of tertiary education. In an effort to improve employability and the transition into the labour market, some countries are encouraging participation in short-cycle tertiary programmes. The probability of a person in Chile, China, Japan, New Zealand, the Russian Federation and Turkey graduating from a short-cycle tertiary programme in his or her lifetime is 25% or higher. Other ways of boosting employability and easing the transition into the labour market include promoting professional or vocational programmes at bachelor’s and master’s levels.
First-time graduation rates, excluding international students
International students (see Definitions section at the end of this indicator) can have a marked impact on graduation rates by inflating the estimate of graduate students compared to the national population. In countries with a high proportion of international students, such as Australia and New Zealand, the difference can be significant. When international students are excluded, first-time tertiary graduation rates drop by 31 percentage points for Australia and 24 percentage points for New Zealand (Table B5.3).
The share of first-time international graduates varies significantly across countries. It is particularly high in Australia, Luxembourg and New Zealand, with at least 20% of international graduates in bachelor’s or equivalent programmes, at least 30% in master’s or equivalent programmes, and at least 40% in doctoral or equivalent programmes. In contrast, the lowest shares of international graduates are found in Chile, Greece and Slovenia, with less than 5% of international graduates in all levels of tertiary education (Figure B5.2).
Figure B5.2. Share of first-time international graduates, by level of education (2016)
Countries are ranked in descending order of the share of international graduates at bachelor’s or equivalent level.
Source: OECD / UIS / Eurostat (2018), Education at a Glance Database, http://stats.oecd.org/. See Source section at the end of this indicator for more information and Annex 3 for notes (http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2018-36-en).
In spite of these cross-country differences, there is a common pattern across countries with available data: advanced tertiary degrees attract more international students than bachelor’s or equivalent degrees. Some 26% of students in OECD countries who graduated for the first time from a doctoral programme in 2016 were international students, compared to 17% of students who were awarded a master’s degree or equivalent, and 7% of students who earned a bachelor’s degree for the first time (Figure B5.2). The high share of international students in advanced tertiary degrees may be due, in part, to the emergence of knowledge-based economies (economies directly based on the production, distribution and use of knowledge and information). This phenomenon has contributed to the internationalisation of research. As a consequence, many students are seeking opportunities to study abroad at the master’s or doctoral level. From the point of view of host countries, attracting international students can be beneficial for several reasons, such as the fees and other living expenses the students pay, and the social and business networks that they help to build with their home countries. In addition, international students, particularly at the master’s or doctoral or equivalent level, can contribute to research and development (R&D) in the host country, initially as students and later on potentially as researchers or highly qualified professionals. Doctoral students, in particular, form an integral part of the research staff of a country (OECD, 2016[7]).
First-time graduation rates among people under age 30
The first-time graduation rate from tertiary education among people under the age of 30 is an indicator of how many young people are expected to enter the labour force for the first time with a tertiary qualification. On average across the 23 countries with available data, 36% of young people (excluding international students) are expected to obtain a tertiary diploma for the first time before age 30 (Table B5.3). This rate ranges from 9% in Luxembourg (although this value is negatively biased by the three-quarters of secondary graduates pursuing tertiary studies abroad) to 50% in Denmark and Spain.
Men are less likely than women to graduate from tertiary education. On average across OECD countries, 43% of women are expected to obtain a tertiary degree before age 30, compared to only 29% of men (Figure B5.3). There is significant cross-country variation, especially for women – with graduation rates ranging from 9% in Luxembourg to 58% in Denmark for women, and from 8% in Luxembourg to 46% in Turkey for men.
In all countries with available data, first-time tertiary graduation rates are lower for men than for women, but the magnitude of the gender gap varies significantly across countries. The difference between men and women goes from less than 5 percentage points in Luxembourg and Switzerland to more than 20 percentage points in Latvia.
Figure B5.3. First-time tertiary graduation rates for national students younger than 30, by gender (2016)
Countries are ranked in descending order of first-time graduation rates for women.
Source: OECD / UIS / Eurostat (2018), Education at a Glance Database, http://stats.oecd.org/. See Source section at the end of this indicator for more information and Annex 3 for notes (http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2018-36-en).
Some education systems accommodate a wider range of ages among their students than others. In Chile, Denmark, Latvia, New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey, first-time graduation rates at the tertiary level drop by 10 percentage points or more when restricted to young people under age 30 (excluding international students). This suggests that these education systems are more flexible in terms of access to programmes and their duration, particularly for students outside the typical age of study. It may also reflect the different policies and attitudes towards adult and lifelong learning. Indeed, with the exception of Turkey, the average age of first-time graduates in these countries is typically higher than the OECD average, mainly driven by entrance at a later age.
Definitions
First-time graduate is a student who has graduated for the first time at a given level of education during the reference period. Therefore, if a student has graduated multiple times over the years, he or she is counted as a graduate each year, but as a first-time graduate only once.
First-time tertiary graduate is a student who graduates for the first time with a tertiary diploma, regardless of the education programme in which he or she is enrolled. This definition is applied in Tables B5.1 and B5.3 (Columns 13 to 15).
First-time graduate from a given programme or level of tertiary education is a first-time graduate from the given programme, but may have a diploma from another programme. For example, a first-time graduate at the master’s level has earned a master’s degree for the first time, but may have previously graduated with a bachelor’s degree. This definition is applied in Tables B5.1 (Columns 5 to 7) and B5.3 (Columns 1 to 12).
International students are those students who left their country of origin and moved to another country for the purpose of study. In the majority of countries, international students are considered first-time graduates, regardless of their previous education in other countries. In the calculations described here, when countries could not report the number of international students, foreign students have been used as an approximation. Foreign students are students who do not have the citizenship of the country in which they studied (for more details, please refer to Annex 3, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2018-36-en).
Net graduation rates represent the estimated percentage of people from a specific age cohort who will complete tertiary education in their lifetime, based on current patterns of graduation.
Methodology
Unless otherwise indicated, graduation rates are calculated as net graduation rates (i.e. as the sum of age‑specific graduation rates).
Gross graduation rates are used when data by age are missing. In order to calculate gross graduation rates, countries identify the age at which graduation typically occurs (see Annex 1). The typical age of graduation for a given education level is defined in Education at a Glance as the age range comprising at least half of the graduate population. The number of graduates of which the age is unknown is divided by the population at the typical graduation age. However, in many countries, defining a typical age at graduation is difficult, because graduates are dispersed over a wide range of ages.
Some of the outliers were removed from Table B5.3 and Figure B5.3 due to comparability issues. They are, however, presented in Annex 3 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2018-36-en)
The average age of students is calculated from 1 January for countries where the academic year starts in the second semester of the calendar year and 1 July for countries where the academic year starts in the first semester of the calendar year. As a consequence, the average age of first-time graduates may be underestimated by up to six months.
Please see Annex 3 for country-specific notes (http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2018-36-en).
Lithuania was not an OECD member at the time of preparation of this publication. Accordingly, Lithuania does not appear in the list of OECD members and is not included in the zone aggregates.
Source
Data refer to the academic year 2015/16 and are based on the UNESCO-UIS/OECD/EUROSTAT data collection on education statistics administered by the OECD in 2017 (for details, see Annex 3 at http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2018-36-en).
Note regarding data from Israel
The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and are under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.
References
[5] Elborgh-Woytek, K. et al. (2013), “Macroeconomic gains from gender equity”, IMF Staff Discussion Note, https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2013/sdn1310.pdf.
[6] OECD (2016), Education at a Glance 2016 : OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2016-en (accessed on 12 January 2018).
[1] OECD (2016), OECD Science, Technology and Innovation Outlook 2016, OECD Publishing, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/sti_in_outlook-2016-en.
[7] OECD (2016), “The internationalisation of doctoral and master's studies”, Education Indicators in Focus, No. 39, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jm2f77d5wkg-en.
[2] OECD (2015), Education Policy Outlook 2015: Making Reforms Happen, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264225442-en.
[3] OECD (2014), Fostering Equity in Higher Education, Compendium of Practical Case Studies: Fostering inclusion of disadvantaged students, http://www.oecd.org/education/imhe/Fostering-inclusion-of-disadvantaged-students.pdf (accessed on 20 June 2018).
[4] OECD (2014), PISA 2012 Results: What Students Know and Can Do (Volume I, Revised edition, February 2014): Student Performance in Mathematics, Reading and Science, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264208780-en.
Indicator B5 Tables
Table B5.1. Profile of a first-time tertiary graduate (2016)
Table B5.2. Distribution of tertiary graduates, by field of study (2016)
Table B5.3. First-time graduation rates, by tertiary level (2016)
Cut-off date for the data: 18 July 2018. Any updates on data can be found on line at http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-data-en. More breakdowns can be found at http://stats.oecd.org/, Education at a Glance Database.
Table B5.1. Profile of a first-time tertiary graduate (2016)
Source: OECD/UIS/Eurostat (2018). See Source section for more information and Annex 3 for notes (http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2018-36-en).
Please refer to the Reader’s Guide for information concerning symbols for missing data and abbreviations.
Table B5.2. Distribution of tertiary graduates, by field of study (2016)
1. Excludes short-cycle tertiary graduates.
2. Data on Information and communication technologies are included in other fields.
3. Excludes doctoral graduates.
4. Year of reference 2015.
Source: OECD/UIS/Eurostat (2018). See Source section for more information and Annex 3 for notes (http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2018-36-en).
Please refer to the Reader’s Guide for information concerning symbols for missing data and abbreviations.
Table B5.3. First-time graduation rates, by tertiary level (2016)
Sum of age-specific graduation rates, by demographic group
1. Year of reference 2015.
Source: OECD/UIS/Eurostat (2018). See Source section for more information and Annex 3 for notes (http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2018-36-en).
Please refer to the Reader’s Guide for information concerning symbols for missing data and abbreviations.