OECD Employment Outlook 2023

Annex A. Statistical annex

Sources and definitions

The tables of the statistical annex show data for all 38 OECD countries where available. Data for Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia and South Africa are compiled and included in a number of tables and in the Employment database (http://www.oecd.org/employment/database).

From this year onwards, the standard tabulations (Tables A to Q) are replaced by web links pointing to data and indicators reported in the OECD central data repository OECD.Stat (http://stats.oecd.org) which contains longer time series. Accordingly, web links pointing to data series are also included. Some additional web links entitled Tables R to U complete this year’s annex referring respectively to data and indicators on statutory minimum wages, trade union density, collective bargaining coverage and synthetic indicators of employment protection. A richer set of labour market data and indicators is accessible from the web page dedicated to employment statistics (www.oecd.org/employment/database). The metadata section of the online datasets reports definitions, notes and sources retained in national data sources.

In general, Tables A to K and Table M report annual averages of monthly and quarterly estimates based on labour force surveys. Those shown for European countries in Tables B, C, D, H, I, J, K and Table M are mainly data from the European Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS), which are more comparable and sometime more consistent over time than national LFS results. Data for the remaining Tables L, N, O, P and the new Tables R to T are from a combination of survey and administrative sources or national reporting and desk research for Table U.

Regarding the OECD Employment database, it contains both raw data and indicators for longer time series and more detailed individual characteristics and type of main job such as data by age group, gender and employee job tenure, part time employment, involuntary part time employment, temporary employment, duration of unemployment. The database includes more data series than those shown in the web links of the statistical annex, such as, the distribution of employment by weekly usual hours worked intervals, potential labour force, so-called people marginally attached to the labour force, etc. The online database contains additional series on working time, earnings and features of institutional and regulatory environments of labour markets.

Major breaks in series

Table A: Data series have been break-corrected in most countries to ensure that unemployment rates are consistent over time.

Tables B to K and Table M: Most of the breaks in series in the tables occurred for any of the following reasons: changes in survey design, survey questionnaire, survey frequency and administration, revisions of data series based on updated population census results. These changes have affected the comparability over time of employment and/or unemployment levels and to a certain extent the ratios reported in the aforementioned tables:

• Change in the measurement of the labour force status and methodology in the European Labour Force Survey since 2021: Data between 2020 and 2021 are affected by a break in series in Tables B, C, D, H, I, J, K and M. The size and direction of the breaks vary by country and statistics as reported in the national documentations on Eurostat website. See: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=EU_Labour_Force_Survey_-_new_methodology_from_2021_onwards.

• Introduction of a continuous survey producing quarterly results: Austria (2003/04), Brazil (2011/12), France (2002/03), Germany (2004/05), Hungary (2005/06, monthly results), Iceland (2002/03), Italy (2003/04), Luxembourg (2002/03, quarterly results as of 2007) and Türkiye (2013/14).

• Redesign of labour force survey: Introduction of a new survey in Chile since April 2010 (see below), Germany (2010/11), Hungary (2002/03), Poland (2004/05), Portugal (2010/11) and Türkiye (2004/05 from quarterly to monthly results). Change from quarterly to monthly survey results and a change from “civilian” to “total” labour force (including those who are in compulsory or permanent military service) in Israel (2011/12). New Zealand (2015/16): the survey includes non-civilian personnel. Annual results for Colombia in 2020 are averaged over three‑quarters (Q1, Q3 and Q4) because of the COVID‑19 pandemic outburst and suspension of the survey in the 2^nd quarter. Since July 2020, a new edition of the continuous quarterly survey was re‑introduced in Mexico (Encuesta Nacional de Ocupación y Empleo, New edition ENOE^N) after its suspension in April 2020 following the COVID‑19 pandemic outburst and lockdown measures. It was replaced in Q2 by a telephone interview survey (ETOE) with partial results. The annual results are averages of three‑quarters (Q1, Q3 and Q4). For the United Kingdom (2003/2004), data for Tables B to D are annual averages of quarterly estimates from the Annual Population Survey (APS); prior to 2004, they refer to the spring quarter (April-June) Labour Force Survey (LFS). Data for Tables H, I, J, K and M are annual averages of quarterly estimates from APS from 2016 onwards.

• Change in the operational definition of employment:

  • Neat application of the criterion of “at least one hour worked in a gainful job” in the Chilean Nueva Encuesta Nacional de Empleo (NENE), a quarterly continuous survey, from April 2010 onward.

• Change in the operational definition of usual working time:

  • In Israel, the Labour Force Survey questionnaire was expanded and changed since January 2018. Workers absent from work are asked “how many hours they usually work”. This affects the number of workers reporting usual weekly hours worked in their main job prior and after 2018, notably Table H on the incidence and composition of part-time employment according to a common 30‑hour threshold-based definition.

• Change in the operational definition of unemployment regarding:

  • Active job-search methods: in particular a change from registration to contact with the public employment service in France (2002/03) and Spain (2000/01).

  • Duration of active job search: In Australia (2014/15), the duration of unemployment has been replaced by duration of job search. In Belgium (2010/11), the duration of job search has been changed from an unlimited duration to previous four weeks including the survey reference week. In Chile (2009/10), the duration of active job search has been shortened from last two months to previous four weeks including the survey reference week.

  • Availability to work criterion: In Sweden (2004/05), the work availability criterion changed from the reference week to two weeks from the reference week to be consistent with the operational definition in other EU countries. In Chile, the work availability criterion did not exist prior to 2010 in the Encuesta Nacional de Empleo (ENE) and was introduced in the Nueva Encuesta Nacional de Empleo (NENE) since April 2010. It has been fixed to two weeks from the end of the reference week.

  • Persons on lay off considered as employed instead of unemployed: Norway (2005/06).

  • Other minor changes: Australia (2000/01) and Poland (2003/04).

• Changes in the questionnaire with impact on employment and unemployment estimates: Germany (2010/11): new questionnaire design ensures better coverage of small jobs. This led to a higher-than-normal annual employment increase. Impact on employment and unemployment statistics in New Zealand (2015/16) with the inclusion of army personnel. Spain (2004/05): impact on employment and unemployment and impact on unemployment estimates in Norway (2005/06) and Sweden (2004/05).

• Change from seasonal to calendar quarters: Switzerland (2009/10) and the United Kingdom (2005/06). However, there is no break in series between 2005 and 2006 for the United Kingdom as calendar quarter based historical series are available since 1992.

• Introduction of new EU harmonised questionnaire: Sweden (2004/05) and Türkiye (2003/04).

• Change in lower age limit from 16 to 15 years: Iceland (2008/09), Norway (2005/06) and Sweden (2006/07).

• Change in lower age limit from 15 to 16 years: Italy (2007/08).

• Change in data collector in Denmark since the first quarter of 2017: the LFS response rate increased and resulted in a significant break in series between 2016 and 2017.

• In Norway, as of 2006 age is defined as years reached at the survey reference week, instead of completed years at the end of the year, as in previous years.

• Inclusion of population controls based on census results in the estimation process: Mexico (2009/10) and Türkiye (2006/07).

• In Japan, data for Table J on temporary employees has a break in series between 2013 and 2017.

Table A. OECD unemployment rates

As a percentage of civilian labour force

https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119413

Table B1. Employment/population ratios by selected age groups – Total

As a percentage of the population in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120204

https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119603 (time series)

Table B2. Employment/population ratios by selected age groups – Men

As a percentage of the population in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120205

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120064 (time series)

Table B3. Employment/population ratios by selected age groups – Women

As a percentage of the population in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120206

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120065 (time series)

Table C1. Labour force participation rates by selected age groups – Total

As a percentage of the population in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120207

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120066 (time series)

Table C2. Labour force participation rates by selected age groups – Men

As a percentage of the population in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120208

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120067 (time series)

Table C3. Labour force participation rates by selected age groups – Women

As a percentage of the population in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120209

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120068 (time series)

Table D1. Unemployment rates by selected age groups – Total

As a percentage of the total labour force in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120210

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120069 (time series)

Table D2. Unemployment rates by selected age groups – Men

As a percentage of the total labour force in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120225

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120070 (time series)

Table D3. Unemployment rates by selected age groups – Women

As a percentage of the total labour force in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120226

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120072 (time series)

Table E. Employment/population ratios by educational attainment, latest year

Persons aged 25‑64, as a percentage of the population in each gender

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119284

Table F. Labour force participation rates by educational attainment, latest year

Persons aged 25‑64, as a percentage of the population in each gender

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119410

Table G. Unemployment rates by educational attainment, latest year

Persons aged 25‑64, as a percentage of the labour force in each gender

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119411

Table H1. Incidence and composition of part-time employment

Persons aged 15 and over, percentages

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120227

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119416 (time series)

Table H2. Women’s share in part-time employment

Percentages

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119415

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120228 (time series)

Table I1. Incidence and composition of involuntary part-time employment

Persons aged 15 and over, percentages

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120229

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=119429 (time series)

Table I2. Involuntary part-time employment as a share of part-time employment

Persons aged 15 and over, percentages

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120230

https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119604 (time series)

Table J1. Incidence and composition of temporary employment

As a percentage of dependent employment in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120231

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119431 (time series)

Table J2. Women’s share in temporary employment

As a percentage of dependent employment in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120244

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119432 (time series)

Table K1. Incidence of job tenure shorter than 12 months – Total

As a percentage of total employment in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120245

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119609 (time series)

Table K2. Incidence of job tenure shorter than 12 months – Men

As a percentage of total employment in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120246

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120167 (time series)

Table K3. Incidence of job tenure shorter than 12 months – Women

As a percentage of total employment in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120247

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=120168 (time series)

Table L. Average annual hours actually worked per person in employment

National accounts concepts unless otherwise specified (Hours per person per year)

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120248

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119612 (time series)

Table M1. Incidence of long-term unemployment, 12 months and over – Total

As a percentage of total unemployment in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120249

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120074 (time series)

Table M2. Incidence of long-term unemployment, 12 months and over – Men

As a percentage of total unemployment in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120250

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120073 (time series)

Table M3. Incidence of long-term unemployment, 12 months and over – Women

As a percentage of total unemployment in each age group

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120251

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119613 (time series)

Table N1. Real average annual wages

Average wages in 2022 USD PPPs

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=124081

Table N2. Real average annual wage growth

Real wage growth of average gross annual wages per full-time equivalent employee, in 2022 constant prices http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=124065

Table O1. Earnings dispersion

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120252

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119440 (time series)

Table O2. Incidence of high and low pay

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120253

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119605 (time series)

Table P1. Relative earnings – Gender gap

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119449 (time series)

Table P2. Relative earnings – Age gap

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119448 (time series)

Table Q1. Public expenditure in labour market programmes

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120256

https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119611 (time series)

Table Q2. Participant stocks in labour market programmes

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120258

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=119451 (time series)

Table R1. Real hourly minimum wages

Statutory minimum wages in constant 2021 prices at 2021 USD Purchasing Power Parities (PPPs) for private consumption expenditures

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120151

Table R2. Minimum wage relative to mean and median earnings

As a percentage of median earnings of full-time employees

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120152

Table S. Trade union density

As a percentage of the number of employees

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120156

Table T. Collective bargaining coverage

As a percentage of eligible employees with the right to bargain

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120158

Table U1. Strictness of employment protection – Individual and collective dismissals (regular contracts)

Index varying from 0 to 6, from the least to the most stringent

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120159

Table U2. Strictness of employment protection – Temporary contracts

Index varying from 0 to 6, from the least to the most stringent

http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=120160